University of Isfahan Geography and Environmental Planning 2008-5362 36 2 2025 08 23 A Critique of the Structure of Iran's National Division System A Critique of the Structure of Iran's National Division System 1 26 29651 10.22108/gep.2025.143790.1697 FA Zahra Ahmadipour Professor of Political Geography, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran Ebrahim Romina Associate professor of Political Geography, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran 0000-0002-5372-9677 همایون عبدی Ph.D. student of Political Geography, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran Seyyed Hossein Yousefi Mehr M.A. in Political Geography, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran Journal Article 2024 12 25  <br /><strong>Abstract</strong><br />Country divisions serve as a mechanism for the effective management of a nation's geographical space by its political systems. There is a significant relationship between the structure of the administrative hierarchy and spatial levels. In political geography, it is essential to establish a proportional relationship between political management institutions and the various levels and frameworks of space. This study recognized organization as a logical framework for territorial administration. In Iran, the political organization of space faces numerous challenges. This research critically examined the structure of the country's division system, which, due to its inherent structural and managerial characteristics, had resulted in inefficiencies in political and administrative governance. The current division system comprises 4 levels: province, city, district, and village. Over time, these areas have encountered issues, such as escalating bureaucracy, inequitable resource distribution, excessive centralization, and a lack of coordination among administrative departments. These challenges have led to increased administrative costs, inefficiencies in service delivery, and widening development gaps between different regions of the country.<br />This article employed a descriptive-analytical method to critique the country's division system through an examination of library documents. The findings indicated that the absence of a regional level within the hierarchical structure of country divisions had resulted in inefficiencies, leading to the adoption of sectoral approaches across various administrative systems. By introducing a regional level and eliminating the village level, it is possible to reduce governmental disparities and enhance the organization and political management of space.<br />The present study underscored the necessity of reevaluating this structure. By proposing a model that eliminated the village level and established a regional level, the study aimed to improve the efficiency of the administrative system. This change could foster greater integration among executive bodies and administrative organizations, aligning country divisions more closely with geographical and cultural characteristics. Ultimately, such adjustments may effectively reduce regional conflicts, promote spatial justice, and strengthen sustainable development.<br /> <br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em></strong> Political Organization of Space, National Divisions, Zoning, Rural District, Iran.<br /> <br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />The territory governed by a country's political system encompasses both geographical space and its elements, including the inhabitants, natural features, and human-made phenomena. This complex interplay of factors creates a dynamic environment that influences governance and societal development. The primary influence of governments on internal space is exercised through spatial organization, which serves as a critical mechanism for implementing policies and regulations. Consequently, the quality and approach to organizing this space significantly shape the trajectory of internal developments within nations. Effective spatial organization not only facilitates administrative efficiency, but also promotes equitable resource distribution, social cohesion, and sustainable development. In this context, organization serves as a logical framework for territorial administration, enabling the regulation of public affairs and ensuring that governance aligns with the needs and characteristics of the population. This process necessitates a deep understanding of space and its characteristics, including demographic patterns, cultural diversity, and environmental considerations. To effectively govern, governments must divide space into a hierarchical structure that aligns with an appropriate administrative organization. This structure should facilitate the management of land and settlements of people, ensuring that governmental authority is exercised in a manner that is both effective and responsive to the diverse needs of the population. Moreover, the spatial organization of a country can influence various aspects of daily life, including economic activities, access to services, and overall quality of life. An appropriately structured hierarchy enhances communication and coordination among different levels of government, fostering collaboration and enabling more effective problem-solving. Ultimately, the manner, in which space is organized and governed, plays a pivotal role in shaping the identity and functionality of a nation, impacting everything from local communities to national policies.<br /> <br /><strong>Materials & Methods</strong><br />This research was descriptive in nature and method, serving an applied purpose while employing an analytical approach to address the problem. Data collection involved utilizing library sources, including zoning study plan documents, executive reports from zoning agencies, and scholarly books and articles, as well as laws enacted by the Islamic Consultative Assembly of Iran.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br /><strong><em>Weaknesses of Political Organization of Space</em></strong><br />The inefficiency of divisions established based on widely accepted approaches, principles, and criteria could be attributed to the inadequacies in the political organization of space in Iran. Population served as the primary indicator for the country’s divisions; yet, it had not led to a balanced spatial distribution of residents. Consequently, spatial anomalies had emerged across the nation. The following are notable consequences of the flawed political organization of space and inefficiencies in Iran's country divisions:<br /><br />a) Insufficient attention to the necessary conditions for creating and enhancing the levels and elements of country divisions for optimal management and development<br />b) Incomplete coordination and imbalance between the administrative structure (executive bodies) and the framework of country divisions<br />c) Lack of proportionate development at the national level<br />d) Increasing governmental inefficiencies and financial burdens<br />e) Diminished political participation of certain regions in administrative and executive affairs<br /><br /> <br /><strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusion </strong><br />The present study demonstrated that the structure of the country's division system characterized by its hierarchical nature, extreme rigidity, and misalignment with geographical and cultural features was insufficiently efficient. This structure impeded balanced development and effective management at various levels across the country. As a result, it had fostered an imbalanced environment within the country's management system, leading to challenges, such as increased bureaucracy, excessive administrative duties, high administrative costs, and inequitable distribution of resources and services. Moreover, the centralization of decision-making and service delivery restricted access for marginalized areas, exacerbating development gaps and heightening social dissatisfaction in these regions.<br /> <br />   <br /><strong>Abstract</strong><br />Country divisions serve as a mechanism for the effective management of a nation's geographical space by its political systems. There is a significant relationship between the structure of the administrative hierarchy and spatial levels. In political geography, it is essential to establish a proportional relationship between political management institutions and the various levels and frameworks of space. This study recognized organization as a logical framework for territorial administration. In Iran, the political organization of space faces numerous challenges. This research critically examined the structure of the country's division system, which, due to its inherent structural and managerial characteristics, had resulted in inefficiencies in political and administrative governance. The current division system comprises 4 levels: province, city, district, and village. Over time, these areas have encountered issues, such as escalating bureaucracy, inequitable resource distribution, excessive centralization, and a lack of coordination among administrative departments. These challenges have led to increased administrative costs, inefficiencies in service delivery, and widening development gaps between different regions of the country.<br />This article employed a descriptive-analytical method to critique the country's division system through an examination of library documents. The findings indicated that the absence of a regional level within the hierarchical structure of country divisions had resulted in inefficiencies, leading to the adoption of sectoral approaches across various administrative systems. By introducing a regional level and eliminating the village level, it is possible to reduce governmental disparities and enhance the organization and political management of space.<br />The present study underscored the necessity of reevaluating this structure. By proposing a model that eliminated the village level and established a regional level, the study aimed to improve the efficiency of the administrative system. This change could foster greater integration among executive bodies and administrative organizations, aligning country divisions more closely with geographical and cultural characteristics. Ultimately, such adjustments may effectively reduce regional conflicts, promote spatial justice, and strengthen sustainable development.<br /> <br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em></strong> Political Organization of Space, National Divisions, Zoning, Rural District, Iran.<br /> <br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />The territory governed by a country's political system encompasses both geographical space and its elements, including the inhabitants, natural features, and human-made phenomena. This complex interplay of factors creates a dynamic environment that influences governance and societal development. The primary influence of governments on internal space is exercised through spatial organization, which serves as a critical mechanism for implementing policies and regulations. Consequently, the quality and approach to organizing this space significantly shape the trajectory of internal developments within nations. Effective spatial organization not only facilitates administrative efficiency, but also promotes equitable resource distribution, social cohesion, and sustainable development. In this context, organization serves as a logical framework for territorial administration, enabling the regulation of public affairs and ensuring that governance aligns with the needs and characteristics of the population. This process necessitates a deep understanding of space and its characteristics, including demographic patterns, cultural diversity, and environmental considerations. To effectively govern, governments must divide space into a hierarchical structure that aligns with an appropriate administrative organization. This structure should facilitate the management of land and settlements of people, ensuring that governmental authority is exercised in a manner that is both effective and responsive to the diverse needs of the population. Moreover, the spatial organization of a country can influence various aspects of daily life, including economic activities, access to services, and overall quality of life. An appropriately structured hierarchy enhances communication and coordination among different levels of government, fostering collaboration and enabling more effective problem-solving. Ultimately, the manner, in which space is organized and governed, plays a pivotal role in shaping the identity and functionality of a nation, impacting everything from local communities to national policies.<br /> <br /><strong>Materials & Methods</strong><br />This research was descriptive in nature and method, serving an applied purpose while employing an analytical approach to address the problem. Data collection involved utilizing library sources, including zoning study plan documents, executive reports from zoning agencies, and scholarly books and articles, as well as laws enacted by the Islamic Consultative Assembly of Iran.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br /><strong><em>Weaknesses of Political Organization of Space</em></strong><br />The inefficiency of divisions established based on widely accepted approaches, principles, and criteria could be attributed to the inadequacies in the political organization of space in Iran. Population served as the primary indicator for the country’s divisions; yet, it had not led to a balanced spatial distribution of residents. Consequently, spatial anomalies had emerged across the nation. The following are notable consequences of the flawed political organization of space and inefficiencies in Iran's country divisions:<br /><br />a) Insufficient attention to the necessary conditions for creating and enhancing the levels and elements of country divisions for optimal management and development<br />b) Incomplete coordination and imbalance between the administrative structure (executive bodies) and the framework of country divisions<br />c) Lack of proportionate development at the national level<br />d) Increasing governmental inefficiencies and financial burdens<br />e) Diminished political participation of certain regions in administrative and executive affairs<br /><br /> <br /><strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusion </strong><br />The present study demonstrated that the structure of the country's division system characterized by its hierarchical nature, extreme rigidity, and misalignment with geographical and cultural features was insufficiently efficient. This structure impeded balanced development and effective management at various levels across the country. As a result, it had fostered an imbalanced environment within the country's management system, leading to challenges, such as increased bureaucracy, excessive administrative duties, high administrative costs, and inequitable distribution of resources and services. Moreover, the centralization of decision-making and service delivery restricted access for marginalized areas, exacerbating development gaps and heightening social dissatisfaction in these regions.<br /> <br />  https://gep.ui.ac.ir/article_29651_e173e8ff1120fa23f0d7f7019d19cc5d.pdf

University of Isfahan Geography and Environmental Planning 2008-5362 36 2 2025 08 23 Analysis of the Relationship between Erodibility and Horton-Strahler Morphometric Parameters in the Komeh Basin Analysis of the Relationship between Erodibility and Horton-Strahler Morphometric Parameters in the Komeh Basin 27 56 29650 10.22108/gep.2025.142552.1667 FA Farkhondeh Ahmadi Beni Ph.D. student, Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Geographical Sciences and Planning, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran Mojgan Entezari Associate professor of Geomorphology, Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Geographical Sciences and Planning, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran Marzieh Ahmadi Ph.D. student, Faculty of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran Mohammad Mahdi Salehi Ph.D. student, Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Geographical Sciences and Planning, Islamic Azad University, Najaf-Abad, Iran Journal Article 2024 09 06  <br /><strong>Abstract</strong><br />Morphometric analysis is a vital scientific approach for watershed management, soil erosion assessment, and natural resource management. It offers essential strategies for soil conservation, flood control, and prevention of ecological imbalances. In the context of Iran’s arid climate and limited soil formation rates, assessing erosion susceptibility in watersheds—such as the Komeh Basin in Semirom County (southern Isfahan Province)—is critically important. This study examined linear, areal, and relief parameters using the methods of Strahler and Horton to prioritize sub-basins and predict erosion risk. The findings revealed that Sub-basin 9 was the most vulnerable area to erosion.<br /> <br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em></strong> Morphometrics, Horton, Strahler, Komeh Watershed, Erodibility.<br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />The foundational research conducted by Horton (1945) and Strahler (1964) established the basis for modern geomorphology through the development of frameworks for analyzing landforms and drainage systems. This knowledge is essential for identifying geomorphological hazards, such as soil erosion, floods, and landslides, and conducting effective watershed management. Morphometric analyses, which utilize quantitative parameters (linear, areal, and relief), enable the prediction of natural hazards and assessment of watershed vulnerability. In arid regions like Iran characterized by low soil formation rates and high erosion susceptibility, these analyses are crucial for maintaining ecological balance and managing water resources. The Komeh Watershed in southern Isfahan Province, notable for its complex geological topography, climatic conditions, and human activities, is particularly prone to erosion. This study aimed to prioritize soil erosion susceptibility across the Komeh Basin and its nine sub-basins by analyzing morphometric indices and generating an erosion susceptibility map to identify high-risk zones.<br /> <br /><strong>Literature Review</strong><br /><strong><em>Domestic Studies:</em></strong><br />Manbari et al. (2023)<em> </em>demonstrated the effectiveness of factor analysis in grouping morphometric parameters in the watersheds of Kurdistan Province, highlighting its utility for hydrological modeling. Negahban (2021) identified 91% of the Dinor Basin as comprising sub-basins with high tectonic activity. Zali et al. (2022) linked elongated basin shapes and gentle slopes to a reduced risk of flooding in the Nekaroud Basin.<br /><strong><em>International Studies:</em></strong><br />Benzougagh et al. (2022) prioritized 48 sub-basins in Morocco using morphometric parameters and GIS, confirming the method’s effectiveness in natural resource management. Kadam et al. (2019) emphasized the sensitivity of semi-arid watersheds to land degradation and the critical role of morphometric analysis.<br /><strong><em>Study Area</em></strong><br />The Komeh Watershed spans approximately 165,015 hectares in southern Isfahan Province, which is bordered by the provinces of Fars and Kohgiluyeh-Boyer Ahmad. Situated between latitudes 30°42' and 31°11' north and longitudes 51°21' and 51°56' east, it is part of Semirom County. Elevations within the watershed range from 1,783 m in the northwest to 4,000 m in the southwest, featuring an average slope of 28%. This rugged and complex topography is significantly influenced by the Dena Mountain Range, the highest fold of the Zagros Mountains.<br />The basin experiences a cold climate with an average annual rainfall of 650 mm. Heavy precipitation and resultant runoff are major contributors to soil erosion in the area. Geologically, the basin is characterized by diverse rock formations dating from the Triassic to Quaternary periods, with Cretaceous rocks (limestone, marl, shale) predominating, especially in the southern regions. Its geomorphological features include mountainous karst landforms (such as caves and sinkholes), floodplains, alluvial terraces, and colluvial hills. Fragile lithology, steep slopes, human activities, and high-intensity rainfall—particularly in central areas receiving 640–690 mm of precipitation—combine with calcareous lithology and slopes to render this region highly susceptible to erosion. Annual precipitation data indicate a volume of 946.1 million cubic meters, which plays a critical role in generating runoff and facilitating erosion processes.<br />The interaction of these natural factors with human interventions, such as changes in land use, has increased the erosion potential in the Komeh Basin. By precisely identifying vulnerable areas through the integration of spatial data layers—including rainfall zones, lithology, and slope—targeted management strategies can be developed to mitigate erosion-related damages and enhance the effective utilization of water and soil resources. This approach is not only relevant to the Komeh Basin, but also serves as a replicable model for other regions in Iran with similar climatic and geological conditions.<br /> <br /><strong>Materials & Methods</strong><br />This study employed a 30-meter resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM) from ASTER as the primary dataset for analysis. The drainage network of the Komeh Basin was delineated by using Global Mapper software and applying Strahler’s stream ordering method and was subsequently divided into 9 sub-basins. Selection of these sub-basins was based on stream orders of greater than 2 and their direct connectivity to the main river channel. 13 morphometric parameters were calculated and categorized into 3 groups: linear (e.g., area, perimeter, stream length, drainage density), areal (e.g., form factor, elongation ratio, circularity ratio), and relief (e.g., ruggedness index). Standardized formulas were utilized for these calculations, drawing on methodologies from Horton (1945), Strahler (1964), Miller (1953), and Kadam (2019).<br />Parameters, such as bifurcation ratio (Rb) and drainage density (Dd) were processed using spatial data in GIS Pro and integrated with Excel. A composite parameter (Cp) was created for each sub-basin by combining linear and areal parameters, allowing for prioritization based on the lowest Cp values. This analysis indicated that Sub-basin 9 with the lowest Cp exhibited the highest susceptibility to erosion. Key factors contributing to this vulnerability included a high drainage density (due to extensive stream length) and an elongated form factor, which suggests a rapid hydrological response to rainfall.<br />The hydrographic network revealed two dominant patterns: rectangular (with streams of orders 1–3 running perpendicular to orders 4–6) and parallel, featuring irregular tributaries, particularly in the northern sector, which intensified the complexity of erosion dynamics. The integration of classical methods (e.g., Horton and Strahler) with GIS technology facilitated the identification of critical zones, enabling the development of management strategies, such as flood control structures and erosion-resistant vegetation planting. This methodology provides a replicable framework for similar basins in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran that are facing comparable soil erosion challenges.<br /> <br /><strong>Basin Parameters</strong><br />The linear parameters of the Komeh Basin—including stream order (U), stream number (Nu), stream length (Lu), stream length ratio (RL), bifurcation ratio (Rb), drainage density (Dd), drainage texture (Dt), stream frequency (Fs), form factor (Ff), circularity ratio (Rc), elongation ratio (Re), overland flow length (Lg), and compactness coefficient (Cc)—were calculated based on the methodologies of Horton (1945) and Strahler (1964). These parameters were directly correlated with the erodibility of the basin.<br />Stream order (U) was classified up to the 6^th order, reflecting a complex drainage system shaped by regional tectonics. The stream number (Nu) decreased with higher orders, peaking in 1^st-order streams (ranging from 85 to 220), which underscored the influence of topography, lithology, and soil permeability. Stream length (Lu) reached its maximum in 1^st-order streams (between 97,254 and 290,281 m), declining in higher orders due to gentle to moderate slopes and lithological factors.<br />The bifurcation ratio (Rb) ranged from 0.94 to 1.0 indicating structural control with Sub-basin 4 (Rb = 1.0) demonstrating the highest vulnerability. Drainage density (Dd), which ranged from 754 to 941 m/km², indicated a rapid hydrological response and erosion potential in Sub-basins 4 and 5 linked to impermeable lithology (such as marls and limestone) and steep slopes. Drainage texture (Dt) values ranged from 0.48 to 1.63, identifying Sub-basins 9 (Dt = 1.63) and 4 (Dt = 1.34) as particularly prone to erosion.<br />Stream frequency (Fs) ranged from 0.57 to 0.80, peaking in Sub-basin 2 (Fs = 0.80) due to its high relief and low permeability. The form factor (Ff) ranging from 0.25 to 0.49 confirmed basin elongation, with Sub-basin 3 (Ff = 0.49) being the most susceptible to flooding. The circularity ratio (Rc), which ranged from 0.17 to 0.32, along with the elongation ratio (Re) (0.56 to 0.79), further validated the elongated shapes of the basins. Overland flow length (Lg) was measured between 0.0021 and 0.0026 km, indicating rapid drainage. Sub-basin 4 (Cc = 0.57) exhibited the highest erosion risk according to the compactness coefficient (Cc), which ranged from 0.40 to 0.57.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br />Sub-basin 9 demonstrated the highest erosion susceptibility (Cp = 3.2–4.6) attributed to extreme relief, high annual rainfall (~650 mm), and fragile lithology. In contrast, Sub-basin 3 (Cp < 1) exhibited the lowest erosion risk due to its gentle slopes and permeable soils.<br /><strong><em>Key Drivers:</em></strong><br /><br /><strong><em>Linear Parameters:</em></strong> Metrics, such as drainage density (Dd = 941 m/km²) and bifurcation ratio (Rb = 1.0), showed a direct correlation with erosion susceptibility.<br /><strong><em>Areal Parameters:</em></strong> Values like the circularity ratio (Rc = 0.17) and form factor (Ff = 0.49) indicated a rapid hydrological response.<br /><br /><strong><em>Soil Analysis:</em></strong><br />Silty loam soils found in the western and northwestern sectors displayed the highest erodibility, aligning with RUSLE maps that emphasized rainfall erosivity (R) and slope (LS).<br /><strong><em>Management Strategies:</em></strong><br /><br /><strong><em>Urgent Measures:</em></strong> Implementing sediment traps and planting Astragalus in Sub-basins 9, 6, and 4<br /><strong><em>Conservation Agriculture:</em></strong><em> </em>Promoting practices in moderate-risk zones, particularly Sub-basins 7 and 1<br /><strong><em>Land-Use Monitoring:</em></strong><em> </em>Maintaining oversight in low-risk areas, such as Sub-basins 3 and 8<br /><br /><strong><em>Technology Integration:</em></strong><br />The use of GIS and remote sensing significantly enhanced precision in data analysis, providing a transferable model applicable to arid and mountainous basins.<br /><strong> </strong><br /><strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusion</strong><br />Morphometric and RUSLE analyses identified Sub-basins 9 and 6 as high-risk zones characterized by dense drainage (940 m/km²), steep slopes of 28%, and fragile lithology. RUSLE highlighted the eastern silty loam soils as erosion hotspots. Divergences between the methods arose from Horton-Strahler’s emphasis on drainage structure compared to RUSLE’s focus on climate and soil factors; however, both approaches concurred on the risks present in the central and northern regions. Key factors contributing to erosion included the path of the main river, extreme relief (up to 4,000 m), and loss of vegetation. In contrast, low-risk Sub-basins 3 and 8 exhibited gentle slopes and permeable soils.<br /><strong><em>Recommendations:</em></strong><br /><br />Implementing sediment traps and plant erosion-resistant vegetation, such as Astragalus<br />Encouraging reduced tillage and contour farming practices<br />Utilizing satellite-based land-use regulation for better management.<br /><br />Integrating morphometric analyses, RUSLE, and local knowledge can optimize management strategies. This comprehensive approach supports decision-making in data-scarce regions, helping to mitigate soil degradation and promote ecological balance.<br /><strong> </strong>  <br /><strong>Abstract</strong><br />Morphometric analysis is a vital scientific approach for watershed management, soil erosion assessment, and natural resource management. It offers essential strategies for soil conservation, flood control, and prevention of ecological imbalances. In the context of Iran’s arid climate and limited soil formation rates, assessing erosion susceptibility in watersheds—such as the Komeh Basin in Semirom County (southern Isfahan Province)—is critically important. This study examined linear, areal, and relief parameters using the methods of Strahler and Horton to prioritize sub-basins and predict erosion risk. The findings revealed that Sub-basin 9 was the most vulnerable area to erosion.<br /> <br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em></strong> Morphometrics, Horton, Strahler, Komeh Watershed, Erodibility.<br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />The foundational research conducted by Horton (1945) and Strahler (1964) established the basis for modern geomorphology through the development of frameworks for analyzing landforms and drainage systems. This knowledge is essential for identifying geomorphological hazards, such as soil erosion, floods, and landslides, and conducting effective watershed management. Morphometric analyses, which utilize quantitative parameters (linear, areal, and relief), enable the prediction of natural hazards and assessment of watershed vulnerability. In arid regions like Iran characterized by low soil formation rates and high erosion susceptibility, these analyses are crucial for maintaining ecological balance and managing water resources. The Komeh Watershed in southern Isfahan Province, notable for its complex geological topography, climatic conditions, and human activities, is particularly prone to erosion. This study aimed to prioritize soil erosion susceptibility across the Komeh Basin and its nine sub-basins by analyzing morphometric indices and generating an erosion susceptibility map to identify high-risk zones.<br /> <br /><strong>Literature Review</strong><br /><strong><em>Domestic Studies:</em></strong><br />Manbari et al. (2023)<em> </em>demonstrated the effectiveness of factor analysis in grouping morphometric parameters in the watersheds of Kurdistan Province, highlighting its utility for hydrological modeling. Negahban (2021) identified 91% of the Dinor Basin as comprising sub-basins with high tectonic activity. Zali et al. (2022) linked elongated basin shapes and gentle slopes to a reduced risk of flooding in the Nekaroud Basin.<br /><strong><em>International Studies:</em></strong><br />Benzougagh et al. (2022) prioritized 48 sub-basins in Morocco using morphometric parameters and GIS, confirming the method’s effectiveness in natural resource management. Kadam et al. (2019) emphasized the sensitivity of semi-arid watersheds to land degradation and the critical role of morphometric analysis.<br /><strong><em>Study Area</em></strong><br />The Komeh Watershed spans approximately 165,015 hectares in southern Isfahan Province, which is bordered by the provinces of Fars and Kohgiluyeh-Boyer Ahmad. Situated between latitudes 30°42' and 31°11' north and longitudes 51°21' and 51°56' east, it is part of Semirom County. Elevations within the watershed range from 1,783 m in the northwest to 4,000 m in the southwest, featuring an average slope of 28%. This rugged and complex topography is significantly influenced by the Dena Mountain Range, the highest fold of the Zagros Mountains.<br />The basin experiences a cold climate with an average annual rainfall of 650 mm. Heavy precipitation and resultant runoff are major contributors to soil erosion in the area. Geologically, the basin is characterized by diverse rock formations dating from the Triassic to Quaternary periods, with Cretaceous rocks (limestone, marl, shale) predominating, especially in the southern regions. Its geomorphological features include mountainous karst landforms (such as caves and sinkholes), floodplains, alluvial terraces, and colluvial hills. Fragile lithology, steep slopes, human activities, and high-intensity rainfall—particularly in central areas receiving 640–690 mm of precipitation—combine with calcareous lithology and slopes to render this region highly susceptible to erosion. Annual precipitation data indicate a volume of 946.1 million cubic meters, which plays a critical role in generating runoff and facilitating erosion processes.<br />The interaction of these natural factors with human interventions, such as changes in land use, has increased the erosion potential in the Komeh Basin. By precisely identifying vulnerable areas through the integration of spatial data layers—including rainfall zones, lithology, and slope—targeted management strategies can be developed to mitigate erosion-related damages and enhance the effective utilization of water and soil resources. This approach is not only relevant to the Komeh Basin, but also serves as a replicable model for other regions in Iran with similar climatic and geological conditions.<br /> <br /><strong>Materials & Methods</strong><br />This study employed a 30-meter resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM) from ASTER as the primary dataset for analysis. The drainage network of the Komeh Basin was delineated by using Global Mapper software and applying Strahler’s stream ordering method and was subsequently divided into 9 sub-basins. Selection of these sub-basins was based on stream orders of greater than 2 and their direct connectivity to the main river channel. 13 morphometric parameters were calculated and categorized into 3 groups: linear (e.g., area, perimeter, stream length, drainage density), areal (e.g., form factor, elongation ratio, circularity ratio), and relief (e.g., ruggedness index). Standardized formulas were utilized for these calculations, drawing on methodologies from Horton (1945), Strahler (1964), Miller (1953), and Kadam (2019).<br />Parameters, such as bifurcation ratio (Rb) and drainage density (Dd) were processed using spatial data in GIS Pro and integrated with Excel. A composite parameter (Cp) was created for each sub-basin by combining linear and areal parameters, allowing for prioritization based on the lowest Cp values. This analysis indicated that Sub-basin 9 with the lowest Cp exhibited the highest susceptibility to erosion. Key factors contributing to this vulnerability included a high drainage density (due to extensive stream length) and an elongated form factor, which suggests a rapid hydrological response to rainfall.<br />The hydrographic network revealed two dominant patterns: rectangular (with streams of orders 1–3 running perpendicular to orders 4–6) and parallel, featuring irregular tributaries, particularly in the northern sector, which intensified the complexity of erosion dynamics. The integration of classical methods (e.g., Horton and Strahler) with GIS technology facilitated the identification of critical zones, enabling the development of management strategies, such as flood control structures and erosion-resistant vegetation planting. This methodology provides a replicable framework for similar basins in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran that are facing comparable soil erosion challenges.<br /> <br /><strong>Basin Parameters</strong><br />The linear parameters of the Komeh Basin—including stream order (U), stream number (Nu), stream length (Lu), stream length ratio (RL), bifurcation ratio (Rb), drainage density (Dd), drainage texture (Dt), stream frequency (Fs), form factor (Ff), circularity ratio (Rc), elongation ratio (Re), overland flow length (Lg), and compactness coefficient (Cc)—were calculated based on the methodologies of Horton (1945) and Strahler (1964). These parameters were directly correlated with the erodibility of the basin.<br />Stream order (U) was classified up to the 6^th order, reflecting a complex drainage system shaped by regional tectonics. The stream number (Nu) decreased with higher orders, peaking in 1^st-order streams (ranging from 85 to 220), which underscored the influence of topography, lithology, and soil permeability. Stream length (Lu) reached its maximum in 1^st-order streams (between 97,254 and 290,281 m), declining in higher orders due to gentle to moderate slopes and lithological factors.<br />The bifurcation ratio (Rb) ranged from 0.94 to 1.0 indicating structural control with Sub-basin 4 (Rb = 1.0) demonstrating the highest vulnerability. Drainage density (Dd), which ranged from 754 to 941 m/km², indicated a rapid hydrological response and erosion potential in Sub-basins 4 and 5 linked to impermeable lithology (such as marls and limestone) and steep slopes. Drainage texture (Dt) values ranged from 0.48 to 1.63, identifying Sub-basins 9 (Dt = 1.63) and 4 (Dt = 1.34) as particularly prone to erosion.<br />Stream frequency (Fs) ranged from 0.57 to 0.80, peaking in Sub-basin 2 (Fs = 0.80) due to its high relief and low permeability. The form factor (Ff) ranging from 0.25 to 0.49 confirmed basin elongation, with Sub-basin 3 (Ff = 0.49) being the most susceptible to flooding. The circularity ratio (Rc), which ranged from 0.17 to 0.32, along with the elongation ratio (Re) (0.56 to 0.79), further validated the elongated shapes of the basins. Overland flow length (Lg) was measured between 0.0021 and 0.0026 km, indicating rapid drainage. Sub-basin 4 (Cc = 0.57) exhibited the highest erosion risk according to the compactness coefficient (Cc), which ranged from 0.40 to 0.57.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br />Sub-basin 9 demonstrated the highest erosion susceptibility (Cp = 3.2–4.6) attributed to extreme relief, high annual rainfall (~650 mm), and fragile lithology. In contrast, Sub-basin 3 (Cp < 1) exhibited the lowest erosion risk due to its gentle slopes and permeable soils.<br /><strong><em>Key Drivers:</em></strong><br /><br /><strong><em>Linear Parameters:</em></strong> Metrics, such as drainage density (Dd = 941 m/km²) and bifurcation ratio (Rb = 1.0), showed a direct correlation with erosion susceptibility.<br /><strong><em>Areal Parameters:</em></strong> Values like the circularity ratio (Rc = 0.17) and form factor (Ff = 0.49) indicated a rapid hydrological response.<br /><br /><strong><em>Soil Analysis:</em></strong><br />Silty loam soils found in the western and northwestern sectors displayed the highest erodibility, aligning with RUSLE maps that emphasized rainfall erosivity (R) and slope (LS).<br /><strong><em>Management Strategies:</em></strong><br /><br /><strong><em>Urgent Measures:</em></strong> Implementing sediment traps and planting Astragalus in Sub-basins 9, 6, and 4<br /><strong><em>Conservation Agriculture:</em></strong><em> </em>Promoting practices in moderate-risk zones, particularly Sub-basins 7 and 1<br /><strong><em>Land-Use Monitoring:</em></strong><em> </em>Maintaining oversight in low-risk areas, such as Sub-basins 3 and 8<br /><br /><strong><em>Technology Integration:</em></strong><br />The use of GIS and remote sensing significantly enhanced precision in data analysis, providing a transferable model applicable to arid and mountainous basins.<br /><strong> </strong><br /><strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusion</strong><br />Morphometric and RUSLE analyses identified Sub-basins 9 and 6 as high-risk zones characterized by dense drainage (940 m/km²), steep slopes of 28%, and fragile lithology. RUSLE highlighted the eastern silty loam soils as erosion hotspots. Divergences between the methods arose from Horton-Strahler’s emphasis on drainage structure compared to RUSLE’s focus on climate and soil factors; however, both approaches concurred on the risks present in the central and northern regions. Key factors contributing to erosion included the path of the main river, extreme relief (up to 4,000 m), and loss of vegetation. In contrast, low-risk Sub-basins 3 and 8 exhibited gentle slopes and permeable soils.<br /><strong><em>Recommendations:</em></strong><br /><br />Implementing sediment traps and plant erosion-resistant vegetation, such as Astragalus<br />Encouraging reduced tillage and contour farming practices<br />Utilizing satellite-based land-use regulation for better management.<br /><br />Integrating morphometric analyses, RUSLE, and local knowledge can optimize management strategies. This comprehensive approach supports decision-making in data-scarce regions, helping to mitigate soil degradation and promote ecological balance.<br /><strong> </strong> https://gep.ui.ac.ir/article_29650_81758995fdf1094d740fa935fda166eb.pdf

University of Isfahan Geography and Environmental Planning 2008-5362 36 2 2025 08 23 Balancing the Population in the Spatial Structure of Yazd Metropolitan Area Balancing the Population in the Spatial Structure of Yazd Metropolitan Area 57 88 29691 10.22108/gep.2025.144542.1709 FA Alireza Rivaz Ph.D. student of Urban Planning, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Art University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran Mohsen Rafieian Associate professor, Faculty of Art and Architecture, University of Yazd, Yazd, Iran Journal Article 2025 03 08  <br /><strong>Abstract</strong><br />In recent decades, Yazd, one of Iran's major cities, has encountered spatial and demographic imbalances. This trend has led to challenges, such as uneven and horizontal urban expansion. The aim of this study was to identify the key components and driving forces behind the spatial imbalance in population distribution and explore their relationship with the spatial structure of Yazd. The ultimate goal was to foster a balanced spatial distribution of the population and an integrated urban-rural system within Yazd territory. Methodologically, this research was applied in nature and utilized a mixed-methods approach, combining both qualitative and quantitative techniques. Foresight methods were employed to identify the driving forces affecting population balance, while genetic algorithms were used to model and optimize population distribution. The findings indicated that the spatial distribution of service and functional centers, employment and activity hubs, and the overall spatial structural pattern—particularly at the functional scale of urban areas—were the primary determinants influencing population attraction and the patterns of spatial and demographic distribution in Yazd. The results revealed: 1) an inverse relationship between the spatial distribution of barren lands and that of service-functional centers and activity hubs; areas with fewer such centers tended to have a higher proportion of barren land; 2) underutilization of land and diminished spatial dynamism in certain urban zones (specifically Zones B and C); 3) uneven spatial distribution of service-functional centers and activity hubs combined with horizontal urban growth had contributed to the spatial imbalance in the population distribution of Yazd.<br /> <br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em> </strong>Balancing, Population Density, Spatial Structure, Genetic Algorithm, Spatial Distribution, Yazd.<br /> <br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />Over the past two decades, urban growth in developed countries has been characterized by the emergence of diverse suburban activity centers. These centers have directly competed with traditional urban areas by decentralizing populations and activities, thereby transforming the spatial structure of contemporary urban environments and fostering more dispersed, polycentric spatial patterns. Research on population spatial structures indicates that the distribution of metropolitan populations is less balanced in developing countries compared to their developed counterparts. This imbalance is particularly evident in the population distribution systems of developing nations, such as Iran, over recent decades. Such imbalances have intensified rural-to-urban migration and further entrenched centralization rather than promoting equilibrium. The extreme concentration of job opportunities driven by centralized economic development has led to resource and capacity accumulation in certain areas while leaving others with low population and development levels. To achieve a more balanced spatial distribution of population within the rural and urban systems of Yazd Metropolis, it is crucial to identify the driving factors that have contributed to these disparities. This involves examining the relationships between these drivers and the city’s spatial structure, as well as assessing the potential for equitable access to services, facilities, and social and economic infrastructure. Consequently, this study first investigated the factors influencing changes in the spatial structure of population to understand the reasons behind the imbalanced population density in both rural and urban areas of the metropolitan region of Yazd. This analysis employed foresight methods. Following this, artificial intelligence was utilized to develop optimal strategies for the redistribution and resettlement of the population in the identified suitable areas.<br /> <br /><strong>Materials & Methods</strong><br />This study was applied in nature and employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative data. The research was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, a futuristic approach was adopted. After reviewing the relevant theoretical foundations and upstream documents, an initial conceptual model was developed. In-depth structured interviews were then conducted with a sample of selected individuals to assess the validity of the proposed model and identify the driving forces influencing the spatial structure of the population in the metropolitan area of Yazd. In the second stage, the factors with the most significant impact on population changes within  the spatial structure of Yazd were identified. The most likely scenario for optimal conditions was modeled using genetic algorithms. This modeling aimed to determine the ideal balanced population density for each neighborhood, district, and area of the city by redistributing activity and service centers within these confines. The study area was the city of Yazd, Iran, which has a population of over 656,474 people according to the 2016 general census. As the most populous city in Yazd Province, Yazd is considered one of the largest cities in Iran with 611,466 residents in urban areas and 45,007 in rural areas. Yazd City comprises two central districts (Yazd City-Hamidia and Shahidieh) and Zarch District, which includes two rural districts: Fajr and Fahraj, while Zarch District encompasses Allahabad and Mohammadabad.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br />The interviews conducted in this study were analyzed to identify the factors influencing changes in the spatial structure of the population in the metropolitan area of Yazd. This analysis involved coding the responses using key words and phrases in MAXQDA software. Due to the inadequate per capita value for each service and activity center, the employed genetic algorithm was able to reduce the discrepancies in these values, thereby balancing the distribution of these centers. To address the per capita shortages, barren and brownfield lands in each area were utilized. At this stage of the research, the most optimal scenario (Scenario 3) was modeled by focusing on the key factors of "spatial distribution of service and activity centers" and "spatial distribution of workplaces". This modeling involved revising the per capita distribution of these centers at the neighborhood, district, and area scales within the studied urban region. The genetic algorithm was employed to enhance population balance with the optimization process following a bottom-up approach, starting from neighborhoods and progressing to broader areas of the city. Overall, the genetic algorithm effectively minimized the differences in per capita values, contributing to a more equitable distribution of service and activity centers.<br /> <br /><strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusion</strong><br />The findings revealed that the primary drivers of population attraction and the determinants of spatial and demographic distribution patterns in Yazd were: (1) spatial distribution of service and functional centers, (2) distribution of employment and activity hubs, and (3) overall spatial structure, particularly at the functional scale of urban regions and the city as a whole. As of 1996 (1375 in the Iranian calendar), most of these centers were concentrated in a single nucleus within Zones A2 (currently 136.5 hectares) and A1 (currently 109.88 hectares), reflecting the mono-centric and insular spatial structure of Yazd. Between 1996 and 2016 (1375 to 1395), some centers relocated to Zone A3 (currently 84.61 hectares) and new centers also showed a tendency to concentrate in this area. The polarity of Yazd City across the three regions (A1, A2, A3) was significantly higher compared to Areas B and C, resulting in the formation of the spatial structure of a single-core island. In the land use distribution pattern proposed by the genetic algorithm at the regional level, the highest concentration of land uses was observed in Areas A2 and A3 (specifically A32, A21, A23, and A24), while Area B (notably B11) exhibited the lowest share. This suggested a shortage of population attraction centers per capita in Areas A1 and A2, alongside a more favorable per capita distribution of these centers in Area B under the current conditions.<br />In the proposed land-use distribution model utilizing the genetic algorithm at the district level, the highest concentration of land uses was found in Zones A2 and A3, while Zone C (C1) had the lowest share. This indicated that enhancing the role of regional population-attracting centers in A2 and A3 could promote a more balanced spatial distribution of the population. Overall, the findings illustrated an inverse relationship between the spatial distribution of barren lands and the presence of service-functional centers and activity hubs: areas with fewer such centers tended to have a higher proportion of barren land. Furthermore, the underutilization of land and diminished spatial dynamism in specific urban zones (particularly Zones B and C) significantly contributed to spatial imbalances in population distribution. However, the untapped potential of barren and brownfield lands presented a valuable opportunity to allocate space for service-oriented and activity-based land uses. The uneven distribution of service-functional centers and activity hubs coupled with unchecked horizontal expansion further intensified spatial imbalance. Consequently, implementing restrictions on uncontrolled urban sprawl—especially in the southern, southeastern, and western peripheries of Yazd—and advocating for an endogenous development approach were crucial steps toward addressing spatial disproportionality. The results of this study underscored the necessity of adopting a comprehensive strategy for urban land management and spatial planning to effectively utilize existing resources and establish a balanced spatial structure for Yazd. This approach may also be applicable to other cities with significant areas of barren and brownfield lands.<br />   <br /><strong>Abstract</strong><br />In recent decades, Yazd, one of Iran's major cities, has encountered spatial and demographic imbalances. This trend has led to challenges, such as uneven and horizontal urban expansion. The aim of this study was to identify the key components and driving forces behind the spatial imbalance in population distribution and explore their relationship with the spatial structure of Yazd. The ultimate goal was to foster a balanced spatial distribution of the population and an integrated urban-rural system within Yazd territory. Methodologically, this research was applied in nature and utilized a mixed-methods approach, combining both qualitative and quantitative techniques. Foresight methods were employed to identify the driving forces affecting population balance, while genetic algorithms were used to model and optimize population distribution. The findings indicated that the spatial distribution of service and functional centers, employment and activity hubs, and the overall spatial structural pattern—particularly at the functional scale of urban areas—were the primary determinants influencing population attraction and the patterns of spatial and demographic distribution in Yazd. The results revealed: 1) an inverse relationship between the spatial distribution of barren lands and that of service-functional centers and activity hubs; areas with fewer such centers tended to have a higher proportion of barren land; 2) underutilization of land and diminished spatial dynamism in certain urban zones (specifically Zones B and C); 3) uneven spatial distribution of service-functional centers and activity hubs combined with horizontal urban growth had contributed to the spatial imbalance in the population distribution of Yazd.<br /> <br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em> </strong>Balancing, Population Density, Spatial Structure, Genetic Algorithm, Spatial Distribution, Yazd.<br /> <br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />Over the past two decades, urban growth in developed countries has been characterized by the emergence of diverse suburban activity centers. These centers have directly competed with traditional urban areas by decentralizing populations and activities, thereby transforming the spatial structure of contemporary urban environments and fostering more dispersed, polycentric spatial patterns. Research on population spatial structures indicates that the distribution of metropolitan populations is less balanced in developing countries compared to their developed counterparts. This imbalance is particularly evident in the population distribution systems of developing nations, such as Iran, over recent decades. Such imbalances have intensified rural-to-urban migration and further entrenched centralization rather than promoting equilibrium. The extreme concentration of job opportunities driven by centralized economic development has led to resource and capacity accumulation in certain areas while leaving others with low population and development levels. To achieve a more balanced spatial distribution of population within the rural and urban systems of Yazd Metropolis, it is crucial to identify the driving factors that have contributed to these disparities. This involves examining the relationships between these drivers and the city’s spatial structure, as well as assessing the potential for equitable access to services, facilities, and social and economic infrastructure. Consequently, this study first investigated the factors influencing changes in the spatial structure of population to understand the reasons behind the imbalanced population density in both rural and urban areas of the metropolitan region of Yazd. This analysis employed foresight methods. Following this, artificial intelligence was utilized to develop optimal strategies for the redistribution and resettlement of the population in the identified suitable areas.<br /> <br /><strong>Materials & Methods</strong><br />This study was applied in nature and employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative data. The research was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, a futuristic approach was adopted. After reviewing the relevant theoretical foundations and upstream documents, an initial conceptual model was developed. In-depth structured interviews were then conducted with a sample of selected individuals to assess the validity of the proposed model and identify the driving forces influencing the spatial structure of the population in the metropolitan area of Yazd. In the second stage, the factors with the most significant impact on population changes within  the spatial structure of Yazd were identified. The most likely scenario for optimal conditions was modeled using genetic algorithms. This modeling aimed to determine the ideal balanced population density for each neighborhood, district, and area of the city by redistributing activity and service centers within these confines. The study area was the city of Yazd, Iran, which has a population of over 656,474 people according to the 2016 general census. As the most populous city in Yazd Province, Yazd is considered one of the largest cities in Iran with 611,466 residents in urban areas and 45,007 in rural areas. Yazd City comprises two central districts (Yazd City-Hamidia and Shahidieh) and Zarch District, which includes two rural districts: Fajr and Fahraj, while Zarch District encompasses Allahabad and Mohammadabad.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br />The interviews conducted in this study were analyzed to identify the factors influencing changes in the spatial structure of the population in the metropolitan area of Yazd. This analysis involved coding the responses using key words and phrases in MAXQDA software. Due to the inadequate per capita value for each service and activity center, the employed genetic algorithm was able to reduce the discrepancies in these values, thereby balancing the distribution of these centers. To address the per capita shortages, barren and brownfield lands in each area were utilized. At this stage of the research, the most optimal scenario (Scenario 3) was modeled by focusing on the key factors of "spatial distribution of service and activity centers" and "spatial distribution of workplaces". This modeling involved revising the per capita distribution of these centers at the neighborhood, district, and area scales within the studied urban region. The genetic algorithm was employed to enhance population balance with the optimization process following a bottom-up approach, starting from neighborhoods and progressing to broader areas of the city. Overall, the genetic algorithm effectively minimized the differences in per capita values, contributing to a more equitable distribution of service and activity centers.<br /> <br /><strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusion</strong><br />The findings revealed that the primary drivers of population attraction and the determinants of spatial and demographic distribution patterns in Yazd were: (1) spatial distribution of service and functional centers, (2) distribution of employment and activity hubs, and (3) overall spatial structure, particularly at the functional scale of urban regions and the city as a whole. As of 1996 (1375 in the Iranian calendar), most of these centers were concentrated in a single nucleus within Zones A2 (currently 136.5 hectares) and A1 (currently 109.88 hectares), reflecting the mono-centric and insular spatial structure of Yazd. Between 1996 and 2016 (1375 to 1395), some centers relocated to Zone A3 (currently 84.61 hectares) and new centers also showed a tendency to concentrate in this area. The polarity of Yazd City across the three regions (A1, A2, A3) was significantly higher compared to Areas B and C, resulting in the formation of the spatial structure of a single-core island. In the land use distribution pattern proposed by the genetic algorithm at the regional level, the highest concentration of land uses was observed in Areas A2 and A3 (specifically A32, A21, A23, and A24), while Area B (notably B11) exhibited the lowest share. This suggested a shortage of population attraction centers per capita in Areas A1 and A2, alongside a more favorable per capita distribution of these centers in Area B under the current conditions.<br />In the proposed land-use distribution model utilizing the genetic algorithm at the district level, the highest concentration of land uses was found in Zones A2 and A3, while Zone C (C1) had the lowest share. This indicated that enhancing the role of regional population-attracting centers in A2 and A3 could promote a more balanced spatial distribution of the population. Overall, the findings illustrated an inverse relationship between the spatial distribution of barren lands and the presence of service-functional centers and activity hubs: areas with fewer such centers tended to have a higher proportion of barren land. Furthermore, the underutilization of land and diminished spatial dynamism in specific urban zones (particularly Zones B and C) significantly contributed to spatial imbalances in population distribution. However, the untapped potential of barren and brownfield lands presented a valuable opportunity to allocate space for service-oriented and activity-based land uses. The uneven distribution of service-functional centers and activity hubs coupled with unchecked horizontal expansion further intensified spatial imbalance. Consequently, implementing restrictions on uncontrolled urban sprawl—especially in the southern, southeastern, and western peripheries of Yazd—and advocating for an endogenous development approach were crucial steps toward addressing spatial disproportionality. The results of this study underscored the necessity of adopting a comprehensive strategy for urban land management and spatial planning to effectively utilize existing resources and establish a balanced spatial structure for Yazd. This approach may also be applicable to other cities with significant areas of barren and brownfield lands.<br />  https://gep.ui.ac.ir/article_29691_a8cd1b66a864f18d4557a2b9fe4b4746.pdf

University of Isfahan Geography and Environmental Planning 2008-5362 36 2 2025 08 23 Studying the Distributions and Areas of Sand Dunes in Iran Using Remote Sensing Methods Studying the Distributions and Areas of Sand Dunes in Iran Using Remote Sensing Methods 89 112 29745 10.22108/gep.2025.145019.1721 FA Mehran Maghsoudi Ph.D. of Geomorphology, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran Hamid Ganjaeian Ph.D. of Geomorphology, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran Journal Article 2025 04 26 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />Sand dunes are prominent features of desert regions and are widely distributed across Iran. Despite their significant environmental impacts and importance in various planning processes, comprehensive studies on Iran's sand dunes have been lacking. This study aimed to evaluate the morphometric and morphodynamic characteristics of Iran's sand dunes. Google Earth and Landsat 8 images were utilized as the primary research data, while the key analytical tools employed were Google Earth and ArcGIS. Initially, the study delineated the areas of all sand dunes in Iran, categorizing them into 9 classes based on their geographical locations. Using Google Earth images and data from 791 sample points, the movements of the sand dunes were assessed from 2005 to 2020. The findings revealed that the total area of Iran's ergs was 47,811 km², accounting for approximately 2.9% of the country's total area. Notably, Lut Sand Dune covering 14,629 km², the sand dunes surrounding the desert plain of Chaleh-Mesileh with 13,081 km², and the eastern sand dunes with 5,737 km² represented the largest sand dune formations in Iran. Furthermore, the morphodynamic assessment indicated that the highest movement rates exceeding 90 m occurred in the southern regions of the main Lut sand dunes, Sistan sand dunes, and Shotori ergs. In contrast, specific areas, such as the isolated sand dunes of Khuzestan, exhibited minimal movement—approximately 2 m—due to stabilization efforts by vegetation from 2005 to 2020.<br /> <br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em></strong><em> </em>Sandstone Morphometry, Sandstone Morphodynamics, Iranian Sandstones.<br /> <br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />Morphology of sand dunes is influenced by various factors, including topography, wind speed, and wind direction. Given that the speed and direction of winds in a region can vary significantly across different seasons and due to diverse topographic influences, the morphology of sand dunes is also highly variable. Additionally, sand dunes exhibit active dynamics that can pose various hazards, such as encroaching on human settlements and creating dust centers, making their study crucial. Research on the geographical distribution of sand dunes worldwide has shown that a substantial portion is found in the subtropical high-pressure belt. As Iran is situated within the dry and desert belt of the world, sand dunes are both widespread and extensive throughout the country. Moreover, significant cities are located near these sand dunes, emphasizing the importance of understanding the natural factors at play, particularly the role of wind in sand transport. Despite the extensive presence of sand dunes in Iran, comprehensive studies on them are lacking. The existing research has primarily been case-specific with no thorough scientific investigations conducted, resulting in many of Iran's sand dunes remaining poorly understood or unknown. Given these issues, it is essential to identify and monitor Iran's sand dunes, provide a general classification, and evaluate their morphometric and morphodynamic characteristics. This research aimed to address these important aspects.<br /> <br /><strong>Materials and Methods</strong><br />This study employed remote sensing methods, utilizing Google Earth and Landsat 8 images as the primary sources of research data. The key tools used were Google Earth and ArcGIS, the first of which facilitated mapping the areas of sand dunes and monitoring their movements, and the second was employed to create the necessary maps. Additionally, the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) interpolation method was utilized to generate a map illustrating sand dune movements. The study was conducted in 3 general stages aligned with its objectives. In the 1^st stage, the information about the locations of sand dunes in Iran was gathered through library research. Subsequently, the precise locations of these dunes were mapped using Google Earth images and a manual digital method. In the 2^nd stage, the mapped sand dunes were categorized into 9 classes based on their geographic locations. Following this classification, the total areas of each dune and its subcategories were calculated. In the 3^rd stage, the status of sand dune movements from 2005 to 2020 was assessed using Google Earth images and the data from 791 sample points.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br />The findings indicated that the total area of Iran's sand dunes was 47,811 km², accounting for approximately 2.9% of the country's total area. Among these, Lut Erg covering 14,629 km² stood out as the largest, which constituted 30.6% of the total area of sand dunes in Iran. Following Lut Erg, the southern Alborz-Kavir Plain and the eastern sand dunes were the next largest with areas of 13,081 km² (27.4%) and 5,737 km² (12%), respectively. Monitoring the movements of sand dunes using 791 sampling points revealed significant movements between 2005 and 2020. In certain areas, particularly in the southern regions of the main Lut sandbank, sand dunes had shifted by approximately 100 m. Additionally, Sistan and Baluchestan Erg and Shottri Erg exhibited considerable movements during this period. Conversely, in regions, such as the isolated erg of Khuzestan, the movements of sand dunes was minimal—about 2 m—due to stabilization from vegetation cover between 2005 and 2020.<br /> <br /><strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusion</strong><br />The findings of this study demonstrated that sand dunes were significantly distributed across Iran, covering extensive areas of the country's desert and coastal regions. This geographical diversity had led to the assignment of different names to sand dunes in various regions. Due to their wide variety and the absence of a comprehensive classification system, this study categorized Iran's sand dunes into 9 distinct classes based on their locations. The results indicated that the total area of sand dunes in Iran was 47,811 km², representing approximately 2.9% of the country's total area. Notably, Lut Riq was identified as the largest sand dune formation, encompassing 30.6% of the total sand dune area in Iran. Furthermore, assessment of the morphodynamic status of these sand dunes revealed that in some regions, the rate of movement between 2005 and 2020 exceeded 90 m. Overall, this study highlighted the extensive nature of Iran's sand dunes, many of which exhibited active dynamics. Given that a significant portion of these sand dunes is located near populated areas, it is crucial to implement measures to prevent their encroachment on human settlements. Establishing vegetation cover as successfully done in certain areas of Khuzestan is one effective strategy to mitigate this issue. <strong>Abstract</strong><br />Sand dunes are prominent features of desert regions and are widely distributed across Iran. Despite their significant environmental impacts and importance in various planning processes, comprehensive studies on Iran's sand dunes have been lacking. This study aimed to evaluate the morphometric and morphodynamic characteristics of Iran's sand dunes. Google Earth and Landsat 8 images were utilized as the primary research data, while the key analytical tools employed were Google Earth and ArcGIS. Initially, the study delineated the areas of all sand dunes in Iran, categorizing them into 9 classes based on their geographical locations. Using Google Earth images and data from 791 sample points, the movements of the sand dunes were assessed from 2005 to 2020. The findings revealed that the total area of Iran's ergs was 47,811 km², accounting for approximately 2.9% of the country's total area. Notably, Lut Sand Dune covering 14,629 km², the sand dunes surrounding the desert plain of Chaleh-Mesileh with 13,081 km², and the eastern sand dunes with 5,737 km² represented the largest sand dune formations in Iran. Furthermore, the morphodynamic assessment indicated that the highest movement rates exceeding 90 m occurred in the southern regions of the main Lut sand dunes, Sistan sand dunes, and Shotori ergs. In contrast, specific areas, such as the isolated sand dunes of Khuzestan, exhibited minimal movement—approximately 2 m—due to stabilization efforts by vegetation from 2005 to 2020.<br /> <br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em></strong><em> </em>Sandstone Morphometry, Sandstone Morphodynamics, Iranian Sandstones.<br /> <br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />Morphology of sand dunes is influenced by various factors, including topography, wind speed, and wind direction. Given that the speed and direction of winds in a region can vary significantly across different seasons and due to diverse topographic influences, the morphology of sand dunes is also highly variable. Additionally, sand dunes exhibit active dynamics that can pose various hazards, such as encroaching on human settlements and creating dust centers, making their study crucial. Research on the geographical distribution of sand dunes worldwide has shown that a substantial portion is found in the subtropical high-pressure belt. As Iran is situated within the dry and desert belt of the world, sand dunes are both widespread and extensive throughout the country. Moreover, significant cities are located near these sand dunes, emphasizing the importance of understanding the natural factors at play, particularly the role of wind in sand transport. Despite the extensive presence of sand dunes in Iran, comprehensive studies on them are lacking. The existing research has primarily been case-specific with no thorough scientific investigations conducted, resulting in many of Iran's sand dunes remaining poorly understood or unknown. Given these issues, it is essential to identify and monitor Iran's sand dunes, provide a general classification, and evaluate their morphometric and morphodynamic characteristics. This research aimed to address these important aspects.<br /> <br /><strong>Materials and Methods</strong><br />This study employed remote sensing methods, utilizing Google Earth and Landsat 8 images as the primary sources of research data. The key tools used were Google Earth and ArcGIS, the first of which facilitated mapping the areas of sand dunes and monitoring their movements, and the second was employed to create the necessary maps. Additionally, the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) interpolation method was utilized to generate a map illustrating sand dune movements. The study was conducted in 3 general stages aligned with its objectives. In the 1^st stage, the information about the locations of sand dunes in Iran was gathered through library research. Subsequently, the precise locations of these dunes were mapped using Google Earth images and a manual digital method. In the 2^nd stage, the mapped sand dunes were categorized into 9 classes based on their geographic locations. Following this classification, the total areas of each dune and its subcategories were calculated. In the 3^rd stage, the status of sand dune movements from 2005 to 2020 was assessed using Google Earth images and the data from 791 sample points.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br />The findings indicated that the total area of Iran's sand dunes was 47,811 km², accounting for approximately 2.9% of the country's total area. Among these, Lut Erg covering 14,629 km² stood out as the largest, which constituted 30.6% of the total area of sand dunes in Iran. Following Lut Erg, the southern Alborz-Kavir Plain and the eastern sand dunes were the next largest with areas of 13,081 km² (27.4%) and 5,737 km² (12%), respectively. Monitoring the movements of sand dunes using 791 sampling points revealed significant movements between 2005 and 2020. In certain areas, particularly in the southern regions of the main Lut sandbank, sand dunes had shifted by approximately 100 m. Additionally, Sistan and Baluchestan Erg and Shottri Erg exhibited considerable movements during this period. Conversely, in regions, such as the isolated erg of Khuzestan, the movements of sand dunes was minimal—about 2 m—due to stabilization from vegetation cover between 2005 and 2020.<br /> <br /><strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusion</strong><br />The findings of this study demonstrated that sand dunes were significantly distributed across Iran, covering extensive areas of the country's desert and coastal regions. This geographical diversity had led to the assignment of different names to sand dunes in various regions. Due to their wide variety and the absence of a comprehensive classification system, this study categorized Iran's sand dunes into 9 distinct classes based on their locations. The results indicated that the total area of sand dunes in Iran was 47,811 km², representing approximately 2.9% of the country's total area. Notably, Lut Riq was identified as the largest sand dune formation, encompassing 30.6% of the total sand dune area in Iran. Furthermore, assessment of the morphodynamic status of these sand dunes revealed that in some regions, the rate of movement between 2005 and 2020 exceeded 90 m. Overall, this study highlighted the extensive nature of Iran's sand dunes, many of which exhibited active dynamics. Given that a significant portion of these sand dunes is located near populated areas, it is crucial to implement measures to prevent their encroachment on human settlements. Establishing vegetation cover as successfully done in certain areas of Khuzestan is one effective strategy to mitigate this issue. https://gep.ui.ac.ir/article_29745_ebfd66abdb45b08c91c595a8d9a83f18.pdf

University of Isfahan Geography and Environmental Planning 2008-5362 36 2 2025 08 23 Spatio-Temporal Modeling of Soil Erosion Using the RUSLE Model and Its Impact on Soil Quality Spatio-Temporal Modeling of Soil Erosion Using the RUSLE Model and Its Impact on Soil Quality 113 140 29692 10.22108/gep.2025.145683.1732 FA Amin Barabarian Master student of Geomorphology, Department of Geography, Faculty of Literature & Human Sciences of Ali Shariati, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran Neda Mohseni Associate professor, Department of Geography, Faculty of Literature & Human Sciences of Ali Shariati, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran Journal Article 2025 06 13 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />This study aimed to evaluate the mechanisms driving soil erosion and investigate the impact of erodibility on soil quality dynamics across the southern slopes of the Aladagh Mountains in North Khorasan Province. To achieve this, soil erosion was assessed using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model in conjunction with satellite data. The relationship between the erosion estimates and the Soil Quality Index (SQI) was analyzed using the Pearson’s correlation coefficient. The RUSLE model results indicated that approximately 90% of the region was classified under severe erosion, with soil loss values ranging from 20 to 40 tons/ha/year. In contrast, areas experiencing soil loss of less than 10 to 20 tons/ha/year accounted for about 8% of the total area. The spatial pattern of the SQI revealed significant heterogeneity with the lowest values—approximately 0.43—found in the central, western, and southwestern regions. Overlaying this pattern with the RUSLE model results indicated that areas with the poorest soil quality predominantly occurred in mountainous regions characterized by steep slopes and rocky outcrops with shallow soils. This phenomenon was attributed to low organic matter content, reduced water retention capacity, and high slope gradients. Correlation analysis demonstrated a strong negative relationship between erosion and soil quality across 82.69% of the total area.<br /> <br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em> </strong>Runoff, Management, Land Degradation, Remote Sensing, Aladagh.<br /> <br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />Soil erosion refers to the detachment and transport of soil particles from surface layers, resulting in the degradation of soil quality and a decline in natural resource productivity. This global issue has severe consequences for agricultural lands, contributes to the sedimentation of dam reservoirs, and particularly affects soil quality on alluvial fan surfaces. Therefore, estimating soil losses, identifying vulnerable areas, and examining the underlying causes and mechanisms are essential steps for implementing effective soil conservation programs. The process of soil degradation is significantly influenced by environmental factors, including soil type, climate, topography, and vegetation, as well as their interactions. While many external variables play a critical role in the extent of soil erosion, intrinsic soil characteristics—such as soil texture, distribution of aggregates with varying physical properties, soil porosity, organic matter content, and soil biodiversity—can exacerbate the risk of erosion. This research aimed to assess: (1) the factors and mechanisms driving soil erosion development through a combination of remote sensing data and the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model; (2) the Soil Quality Index (SQI) using OpenLandMap data and MODIS sensor products; and (3) the effects of the soil erodibility factor on changes in soil quality.<br /> <br /><strong>Materials & Methods</strong><br />This study was conducted on the southern slopes of the Aladagh Mountains, which are classified as having a semi-arid climate according to the De Martonne climate index. The input data for the annual calculations of the RUSLE were sourced from several global datasets. To estimate the rainfall-runoff erosivity factor (R), high-resolution precipitation data from the CHIRPS dataset were utilized. The soil erodibility factor (K) was determined using the soil texture class map from OpenLandMap. The topographic factor (LS) was computed through spatial analysis of a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) obtained from SRTM with a resolution of 30 m. For a more accurate calculation of the cover-management factor (C), a combined approach was employed. This integrated annual land cover/use data from the MODIS sensor with time-series NDVI data to account for the simultaneous effects of land use type and vegetation density. To evaluate the SQI, the data on the physical, chemical, and topographic properties of the soil were utilized. Physical properties, such as the percentage of sand and clay, were extracted from the OpenLandMap dataset, while soil surface moisture was derived from the SMAP sensor product. For the assessment of chemical properties, pH and soil organic carbon data were sourced from global OpenLandMap products. NDVI and land surface temperature data were extracted from the MOD13Q1 and MOD11A1 products, respectively.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br />The results of the RUSLE model applied over a 20-year period indicated that approximately 90% of the total area fell within the severe erosion class with the estimated soil loss ranging from 20 to 40 tons/ha/year. Conversely, erosion classes with soil loss values of less than 10 to 20 tons/ha/year accounted for about 8% of the region. This distribution highlighted a significant potential for sediment production and land degradation within the basin, underscoring the need for effective management measures for natural resources. The spatial pattern of the SQI revealed considerable heterogeneity with the lowest index value—approximately 0.43—observed in the central, western, and southwestern parts of the region. Overlaying this pattern with the RUSLE model results showed that areas with the poorest soil quality were predominantly located in mountainous terrains characterized by steep slopes, rocky outcrops, and shallow soils. This situation was attributed to low organic matter content, inadequate water retention capacity, and steep gradients. Correlation analysis demonstrated a strong negative relationship between erosion and soil quality across 82.69% of the total area.<br /> <br /><strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusion</strong><br />Soil erodibility is a critical index for assessing soil susceptibility to water erosion and predicting soil loss. Soil erodibility (K) value serves as an intrinsic factor, illustrating the vulnerability of soils to erosion; thus, a higher K value corresponds to more severe soil erosion. Soil erosion presents significant environmental, economic, and social challenges. The results of this study indicated that soil erodibility increased when alluvial material from collapsing gullies was deposited onto farmland. While precipitation was the primary external driver of erosion, soil erodibility remained a crucial internal factor. It was influenced by various characteristics, including soil texture, organic matter content, soil structure, and fundamental soil permeability. This research found a strong positive correlation between soil erodibility and factors, such as soil texture, slope, and organic matter content. The RUSLE model results revealed two concurrent phenomena. Firstly, there was an overall increasing trend in mean annual soil erosion, primarily driven by anthropogenic pressures, land use changes, and land degradation. Secondly, significant inter-annual fluctuations in soil erodibility and soil quality were observed, which were directly correlated with short-term climate variations, particularly the intensity and amount of annual precipitation. This underscored the vulnerability of the region’s ecological system to climatic fluctuations. Additionally, the findings established a significant inverse relationship between soil erosion and soil quality in the study area. Spatial analyses confirmed a strong negative correlation (82.69%) between these two variables, highlighting erosion as the primary factor diminishing soil quality. Consequently, areas with high rates of erosion spatially coincided with low soil quality, while regions with low erosion rates were associated with more favorable soil quality. Based on the results, the level of soil erodibility was significantly influenced by intrinsic soil properties, including soil organic matter content, soil texture, soil structure, and soil moisture and permeability. The relationship between erosion and soil characteristics revealed that erodibility decreased as soil organic matter content increased. This phenomenon could be attributed to the role of organic matter in enhancing the cohesion of soil aggregates. This inverse relationship underscores the urgent need for effective soil management and conservation practices in these regions, especially in areas that exhibit a strong negative correlation. Comprehensive soil and water conservation management plans are essential and should focus on restoring vegetation cover, implementing proper grazing management, promoting conservation agriculture techniques, and constructing engineering structures for erosion control in areas classified as experiencing severe erosion. Moreover, continuous monitoring of erosion status is critical for assessing the effectiveness of the management measures that have been implemented.<br />  <strong>Abstract</strong><br />This study aimed to evaluate the mechanisms driving soil erosion and investigate the impact of erodibility on soil quality dynamics across the southern slopes of the Aladagh Mountains in North Khorasan Province. To achieve this, soil erosion was assessed using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model in conjunction with satellite data. The relationship between the erosion estimates and the Soil Quality Index (SQI) was analyzed using the Pearson’s correlation coefficient. The RUSLE model results indicated that approximately 90% of the region was classified under severe erosion, with soil loss values ranging from 20 to 40 tons/ha/year. In contrast, areas experiencing soil loss of less than 10 to 20 tons/ha/year accounted for about 8% of the total area. The spatial pattern of the SQI revealed significant heterogeneity with the lowest values—approximately 0.43—found in the central, western, and southwestern regions. Overlaying this pattern with the RUSLE model results indicated that areas with the poorest soil quality predominantly occurred in mountainous regions characterized by steep slopes and rocky outcrops with shallow soils. This phenomenon was attributed to low organic matter content, reduced water retention capacity, and high slope gradients. Correlation analysis demonstrated a strong negative relationship between erosion and soil quality across 82.69% of the total area.<br /> <br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em> </strong>Runoff, Management, Land Degradation, Remote Sensing, Aladagh.<br /> <br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />Soil erosion refers to the detachment and transport of soil particles from surface layers, resulting in the degradation of soil quality and a decline in natural resource productivity. This global issue has severe consequences for agricultural lands, contributes to the sedimentation of dam reservoirs, and particularly affects soil quality on alluvial fan surfaces. Therefore, estimating soil losses, identifying vulnerable areas, and examining the underlying causes and mechanisms are essential steps for implementing effective soil conservation programs. The process of soil degradation is significantly influenced by environmental factors, including soil type, climate, topography, and vegetation, as well as their interactions. While many external variables play a critical role in the extent of soil erosion, intrinsic soil characteristics—such as soil texture, distribution of aggregates with varying physical properties, soil porosity, organic matter content, and soil biodiversity—can exacerbate the risk of erosion. This research aimed to assess: (1) the factors and mechanisms driving soil erosion development through a combination of remote sensing data and the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model; (2) the Soil Quality Index (SQI) using OpenLandMap data and MODIS sensor products; and (3) the effects of the soil erodibility factor on changes in soil quality.<br /> <br /><strong>Materials & Methods</strong><br />This study was conducted on the southern slopes of the Aladagh Mountains, which are classified as having a semi-arid climate according to the De Martonne climate index. The input data for the annual calculations of the RUSLE were sourced from several global datasets. To estimate the rainfall-runoff erosivity factor (R), high-resolution precipitation data from the CHIRPS dataset were utilized. The soil erodibility factor (K) was determined using the soil texture class map from OpenLandMap. The topographic factor (LS) was computed through spatial analysis of a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) obtained from SRTM with a resolution of 30 m. For a more accurate calculation of the cover-management factor (C), a combined approach was employed. This integrated annual land cover/use data from the MODIS sensor with time-series NDVI data to account for the simultaneous effects of land use type and vegetation density. To evaluate the SQI, the data on the physical, chemical, and topographic properties of the soil were utilized. Physical properties, such as the percentage of sand and clay, were extracted from the OpenLandMap dataset, while soil surface moisture was derived from the SMAP sensor product. For the assessment of chemical properties, pH and soil organic carbon data were sourced from global OpenLandMap products. NDVI and land surface temperature data were extracted from the MOD13Q1 and MOD11A1 products, respectively.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br />The results of the RUSLE model applied over a 20-year period indicated that approximately 90% of the total area fell within the severe erosion class with the estimated soil loss ranging from 20 to 40 tons/ha/year. Conversely, erosion classes with soil loss values of less than 10 to 20 tons/ha/year accounted for about 8% of the region. This distribution highlighted a significant potential for sediment production and land degradation within the basin, underscoring the need for effective management measures for natural resources. The spatial pattern of the SQI revealed considerable heterogeneity with the lowest index value—approximately 0.43—observed in the central, western, and southwestern parts of the region. Overlaying this pattern with the RUSLE model results showed that areas with the poorest soil quality were predominantly located in mountainous terrains characterized by steep slopes, rocky outcrops, and shallow soils. This situation was attributed to low organic matter content, inadequate water retention capacity, and steep gradients. Correlation analysis demonstrated a strong negative relationship between erosion and soil quality across 82.69% of the total area.<br /> <br /><strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusion</strong><br />Soil erodibility is a critical index for assessing soil susceptibility to water erosion and predicting soil loss. Soil erodibility (K) value serves as an intrinsic factor, illustrating the vulnerability of soils to erosion; thus, a higher K value corresponds to more severe soil erosion. Soil erosion presents significant environmental, economic, and social challenges. The results of this study indicated that soil erodibility increased when alluvial material from collapsing gullies was deposited onto farmland. While precipitation was the primary external driver of erosion, soil erodibility remained a crucial internal factor. It was influenced by various characteristics, including soil texture, organic matter content, soil structure, and fundamental soil permeability. This research found a strong positive correlation between soil erodibility and factors, such as soil texture, slope, and organic matter content. The RUSLE model results revealed two concurrent phenomena. Firstly, there was an overall increasing trend in mean annual soil erosion, primarily driven by anthropogenic pressures, land use changes, and land degradation. Secondly, significant inter-annual fluctuations in soil erodibility and soil quality were observed, which were directly correlated with short-term climate variations, particularly the intensity and amount of annual precipitation. This underscored the vulnerability of the region’s ecological system to climatic fluctuations. Additionally, the findings established a significant inverse relationship between soil erosion and soil quality in the study area. Spatial analyses confirmed a strong negative correlation (82.69%) between these two variables, highlighting erosion as the primary factor diminishing soil quality. Consequently, areas with high rates of erosion spatially coincided with low soil quality, while regions with low erosion rates were associated with more favorable soil quality. Based on the results, the level of soil erodibility was significantly influenced by intrinsic soil properties, including soil organic matter content, soil texture, soil structure, and soil moisture and permeability. The relationship between erosion and soil characteristics revealed that erodibility decreased as soil organic matter content increased. This phenomenon could be attributed to the role of organic matter in enhancing the cohesion of soil aggregates. This inverse relationship underscores the urgent need for effective soil management and conservation practices in these regions, especially in areas that exhibit a strong negative correlation. Comprehensive soil and water conservation management plans are essential and should focus on restoring vegetation cover, implementing proper grazing management, promoting conservation agriculture techniques, and constructing engineering structures for erosion control in areas classified as experiencing severe erosion. Moreover, continuous monitoring of erosion status is critical for assessing the effectiveness of the management measures that have been implemented.<br />  https://gep.ui.ac.ir/article_29692_9923ace01ae6f06fb78aeb65417a3e3c.pdf

University of Isfahan Geography and Environmental Planning 2008-5362 36 2 2025 08 23 Spatial-Temporal Analysis of Channel Dynamics and Longitudinal Profile Changes of the Halil-Rud River Using Remote Sensing with Regard to the Interaction of Natural and Anthropogenic Factors (1984–2020) Spatial-Temporal Analysis of Channel Dynamics and Longitudinal Profile Changes of the Halil-Rud River Using Remote Sensing with Regard to the Interaction of Natural and Anthropogenic Factors (1984–2020) 141 168 29742 10.22108/gep.2025.145420.1726 FA Mohammad Sharifi Paichoon Associate professor in Geomorphology, Department of Geography, University of Yazd, Yazd, Iran Azam Solaimani M.A. in Geomorphology, Department of Geography, University of Yazd, Yazd, Iran Journal Article 2025 05 25 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />This study investigated the longitudinal profile changes of the Halil-Rud riverbed, highlighting the intricate dynamics of river channels influenced by natural processes and human activities. Utilizing Landsat satellite imagery from 1984 to 2020, alongside Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data, we analyzed spatial and temporal changes in the river's morphology across 8 distinct sections. Our findings revealed an overall increase in river length with significant variations attributable to geological, tectonic, and anthropogenic factors. Notably, sections characterized by resistant igneous rocks maintained relative stability, while downstream areas with alluvial sediments exhibited pronounced fluvial dynamics and meandering. The study identified a period of relative stability from 1996 to 2008, which was followed by significant morphological changes linked to intensified human activities, including dam construction and land use alterations. These changes had implications for hydrology, sediment transport, and sustainability of adjacent ecosystems, emphasizing the need for effective water resource management strategies to mitigate the impacts of riverbed instability on local communities and infrastructure.<br /><em> </em><br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em> </strong>Halil-Rud River, Longitudinal Profile, Satellite Imagery, River Morphology, Anthropogenic Changes, Geological Factors, Fluvial Dynamics, Water Resource Management, Sediment Transport, Ecosystem Sustainability.<br /> <br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />The dynamics of river channels and their associated fluvial morphological features represent complex, nonlinear systems influenced by a combination of natural processes and human activities, particularly at localized levels. These systems exhibit significant spatial variability with notable differences observable across diverse geographic regions and among various segments within a single river network. In recent decades, anthropogenic changes have markedly altered channel forms and dimensions. Riverine systems function not only as agents of geomorphological change, but also as critical indicators of broader landscape development. This dual role is evident in observable changes to channel planform, cross-sectional geometry, longitudinal profiles, and network topology. Typically, fluvial systems respond gradually over short temporal scales, ranging from seasons to decades; however, they can also undergo rapid and substantial morphological changes under sustained environmental stress (over centennial timescales) or during extreme hydrological events, such as floods with recurrence intervals exceeding 100 years.<br />One of the most significant challenges in river systems is the migration of channel beds over time, which can cause substantial damage to infrastructure, human settlements, and agricultural lands. Among these changes, alterations in the longitudinal profiles of rivers—resulting from interactions among river incision, lithology, tectonics, base level fluctuations, and anthropogenic activities—are particularly noteworthy. Studying river longitudinal profiles is crucial for various practical applications, including flood control, reservoir efficiency, and watershed management. This research aimed to investigate the changes in the longitudinal profile of the Halil-Rud riverbed through the processing and analysis of satellite images and data, alongside an examination of the influencing factors. The relevance of this study lay in the significant impact that changes in the river's longitudinal profile could have on the surrounding geographic regions, affecting hydrology, sediment transport, human safety, local economies, and availability of water for agriculture and orchards. In the realm of water resource management, the dynamic behavior of river systems often leads to alterations in flow pathways and water quality, which in turn influence agricultural irrigation, industrial water consumption, and drinking water supplies. Ecologically, the structural stability of riverbeds is vital for the sustainability of adjacent ecosystems, such as wetlands and riparian forests. From a socio-economic perspective, riverbank erosion and associated morphological changes can result in the loss of arable land and other terrestrial resources, directly impacting agricultural productivity and livelihoods of local communities. Furthermore, these changes may jeopardize infrastructure, including bridges, roads, and levees, leading to increased maintenance costs and negative economic consequences for regional development. Given that rivers are inherently dynamic systems with their morphological features evolving over time due to geomorphological, geological, hydrological, and anthropogenic factors, identifying the physical processes and structural conditions that promote riverbed stability is of critical importance. This research highlighted these pressing issues.<br /> <br /><strong>Materials & Methods</strong><br />To conduct this study, Landsat satellite images with a spatial resolution of 30 m were obtained from the United States Geological Survey (USGS), covering the period from 1984 to 2020. Specifically, Landsat 5 (TM) imagery was used for the years 1984 and 1996, Landsat 7 (ETM+) for 2008, and Landsat 8 (OLI) for 2020. Additionally, Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data with a 30-meter resolution were employed to generate a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for slope and topographic analyses of the watershed. Image pre-processing, which included geometric and radiometric corrections, was performed using ENVI 5.3 software. To identify the riverbed and detect changes in the river channel, supervised classification methods were utilized and river boundaries were delineated using spectral indices. The processed images were then mosaicked for integrated analysis. Given its considerable length (over 400 km) and passage through various geomorphological units, the river was divided into 8 sections. For change detection, the satellite images were imported into a GIS environment, where channel changes within each segment were assessed across 4 time periods. Google Earth Pro was also employed for visual change detection and data validation. Furthermore, 1:50,000 topographic maps of different parts of the basin, 1:100,000 geological maps of the study area, and maps detailing soil, vegetation cover, and land use were utilized to reconstruct the basin and evaluate the influence of both natural and anthropogenic factors on changes in the river’s longitudinal profile.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br />Data analysis revealed a general increase in river length across the eight defined sections. Specifically:<br /><br /><strong><em>Increases in Length:</em></strong> Sections 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 showed increases of approximately 2, 2, 4, 3, 2, and 3 km, respectively.<br /><strong><em>Minimal Changes:</em></strong> Sections 2 and 4 exhibited relatively minor longitudinal changes attributed to dynamic equilibrium and tectonic influences.<br /><strong><em>Geological Influences:</em></strong> The presence of resistant igneous rocks in upstream sections had contributed to their stability, while downstream sections (7 and 8) demonstrated higher fluvial dynamics and extensive meandering.<br /><strong><em>Tectonic Activities:</em></strong> Significant deviations in the river course had occurred in sections 2, 4, and 5 due to faults and geological uplifts with a notable orientation shift in section 3.<br /><strong><em>Human Interventions:</em></strong> Dam construction had altered water discharge and sediment deposition, increasing river length and modifying flow patterns in Sections 5 and 6.<br /><strong><em>Land Use Changes:</em></strong> Agricultural expansion and vegetation removal in Sections 4 to 7 had intensified erosion and morphological transformations.<br /><strong><em>Temporal Patterns:</em></strong> Between 1996 and 2008, the riverbed had experienced minor changes, indicating stability, while significant morphological changes were observed from 2008 to 2020 due to intensified human activities.<br /><br /> <br /><strong>Discussion of Results and Conclusion</strong><br />The results indicated that each segment of the river had unique characteristics influenced by various factors, including lithology, tectonic activity, topography, soil type, vegetation cover, and water discharge.<br /><br /><strong><em>Interplay of Factors:</em></strong> Changes in the river length and morphology were governed by a complex interplay of natural factors (geology, tectonics, topography) and human activities (dam construction, land use change).<br /><strong><em>Stability and Dynamics:</em></strong> Upstream segments with igneous rocks showed relative stability, while downstream alluvial sections exhibited extensive changes due to high dynamics and erosion.<br /><strong><em>Longitudinal Profile Changes:</em></strong> Significant longitudinal profile changes were more pronounced in low-gradient sections with soft sediments, while steep-gradient segments exhibited less variation.<br /><strong><em>Channel Dynamics:</em></strong> The river's shift between old and new alluvial beds accounted for high channel migration, with some areas experiencing over 3 kilometers of length increase and extensive meandering.<br /><strong><em>Human Impact:</em></strong> Dam construction and land use changes had substantially influenced water discharge and sediment dynamics, leading to alterations in river morphology and flow patterns.<br /><br />These findings underscored the importance of understanding both natural processes and human impacts on river systems to develop effective management strategies for water resources and ecosystem sustainability.<br />  <strong>Abstract</strong><br />This study investigated the longitudinal profile changes of the Halil-Rud riverbed, highlighting the intricate dynamics of river channels influenced by natural processes and human activities. Utilizing Landsat satellite imagery from 1984 to 2020, alongside Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data, we analyzed spatial and temporal changes in the river's morphology across 8 distinct sections. Our findings revealed an overall increase in river length with significant variations attributable to geological, tectonic, and anthropogenic factors. Notably, sections characterized by resistant igneous rocks maintained relative stability, while downstream areas with alluvial sediments exhibited pronounced fluvial dynamics and meandering. The study identified a period of relative stability from 1996 to 2008, which was followed by significant morphological changes linked to intensified human activities, including dam construction and land use alterations. These changes had implications for hydrology, sediment transport, and sustainability of adjacent ecosystems, emphasizing the need for effective water resource management strategies to mitigate the impacts of riverbed instability on local communities and infrastructure.<br /><em> </em><br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em> </strong>Halil-Rud River, Longitudinal Profile, Satellite Imagery, River Morphology, Anthropogenic Changes, Geological Factors, Fluvial Dynamics, Water Resource Management, Sediment Transport, Ecosystem Sustainability.<br /> <br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />The dynamics of river channels and their associated fluvial morphological features represent complex, nonlinear systems influenced by a combination of natural processes and human activities, particularly at localized levels. These systems exhibit significant spatial variability with notable differences observable across diverse geographic regions and among various segments within a single river network. In recent decades, anthropogenic changes have markedly altered channel forms and dimensions. Riverine systems function not only as agents of geomorphological change, but also as critical indicators of broader landscape development. This dual role is evident in observable changes to channel planform, cross-sectional geometry, longitudinal profiles, and network topology. Typically, fluvial systems respond gradually over short temporal scales, ranging from seasons to decades; however, they can also undergo rapid and substantial morphological changes under sustained environmental stress (over centennial timescales) or during extreme hydrological events, such as floods with recurrence intervals exceeding 100 years.<br />One of the most significant challenges in river systems is the migration of channel beds over time, which can cause substantial damage to infrastructure, human settlements, and agricultural lands. Among these changes, alterations in the longitudinal profiles of rivers—resulting from interactions among river incision, lithology, tectonics, base level fluctuations, and anthropogenic activities—are particularly noteworthy. Studying river longitudinal profiles is crucial for various practical applications, including flood control, reservoir efficiency, and watershed management. This research aimed to investigate the changes in the longitudinal profile of the Halil-Rud riverbed through the processing and analysis of satellite images and data, alongside an examination of the influencing factors. The relevance of this study lay in the significant impact that changes in the river's longitudinal profile could have on the surrounding geographic regions, affecting hydrology, sediment transport, human safety, local economies, and availability of water for agriculture and orchards. In the realm of water resource management, the dynamic behavior of river systems often leads to alterations in flow pathways and water quality, which in turn influence agricultural irrigation, industrial water consumption, and drinking water supplies. Ecologically, the structural stability of riverbeds is vital for the sustainability of adjacent ecosystems, such as wetlands and riparian forests. From a socio-economic perspective, riverbank erosion and associated morphological changes can result in the loss of arable land and other terrestrial resources, directly impacting agricultural productivity and livelihoods of local communities. Furthermore, these changes may jeopardize infrastructure, including bridges, roads, and levees, leading to increased maintenance costs and negative economic consequences for regional development. Given that rivers are inherently dynamic systems with their morphological features evolving over time due to geomorphological, geological, hydrological, and anthropogenic factors, identifying the physical processes and structural conditions that promote riverbed stability is of critical importance. This research highlighted these pressing issues.<br /> <br /><strong>Materials & Methods</strong><br />To conduct this study, Landsat satellite images with a spatial resolution of 30 m were obtained from the United States Geological Survey (USGS), covering the period from 1984 to 2020. Specifically, Landsat 5 (TM) imagery was used for the years 1984 and 1996, Landsat 7 (ETM+) for 2008, and Landsat 8 (OLI) for 2020. Additionally, Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data with a 30-meter resolution were employed to generate a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for slope and topographic analyses of the watershed. Image pre-processing, which included geometric and radiometric corrections, was performed using ENVI 5.3 software. To identify the riverbed and detect changes in the river channel, supervised classification methods were utilized and river boundaries were delineated using spectral indices. The processed images were then mosaicked for integrated analysis. Given its considerable length (over 400 km) and passage through various geomorphological units, the river was divided into 8 sections. For change detection, the satellite images were imported into a GIS environment, where channel changes within each segment were assessed across 4 time periods. Google Earth Pro was also employed for visual change detection and data validation. Furthermore, 1:50,000 topographic maps of different parts of the basin, 1:100,000 geological maps of the study area, and maps detailing soil, vegetation cover, and land use were utilized to reconstruct the basin and evaluate the influence of both natural and anthropogenic factors on changes in the river’s longitudinal profile.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br />Data analysis revealed a general increase in river length across the eight defined sections. Specifically:<br /><br /><strong><em>Increases in Length:</em></strong> Sections 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 showed increases of approximately 2, 2, 4, 3, 2, and 3 km, respectively.<br /><strong><em>Minimal Changes:</em></strong> Sections 2 and 4 exhibited relatively minor longitudinal changes attributed to dynamic equilibrium and tectonic influences.<br /><strong><em>Geological Influences:</em></strong> The presence of resistant igneous rocks in upstream sections had contributed to their stability, while downstream sections (7 and 8) demonstrated higher fluvial dynamics and extensive meandering.<br /><strong><em>Tectonic Activities:</em></strong> Significant deviations in the river course had occurred in sections 2, 4, and 5 due to faults and geological uplifts with a notable orientation shift in section 3.<br /><strong><em>Human Interventions:</em></strong> Dam construction had altered water discharge and sediment deposition, increasing river length and modifying flow patterns in Sections 5 and 6.<br /><strong><em>Land Use Changes:</em></strong> Agricultural expansion and vegetation removal in Sections 4 to 7 had intensified erosion and morphological transformations.<br /><strong><em>Temporal Patterns:</em></strong> Between 1996 and 2008, the riverbed had experienced minor changes, indicating stability, while significant morphological changes were observed from 2008 to 2020 due to intensified human activities.<br /><br /> <br /><strong>Discussion of Results and Conclusion</strong><br />The results indicated that each segment of the river had unique characteristics influenced by various factors, including lithology, tectonic activity, topography, soil type, vegetation cover, and water discharge.<br /><br /><strong><em>Interplay of Factors:</em></strong> Changes in the river length and morphology were governed by a complex interplay of natural factors (geology, tectonics, topography) and human activities (dam construction, land use change).<br /><strong><em>Stability and Dynamics:</em></strong> Upstream segments with igneous rocks showed relative stability, while downstream alluvial sections exhibited extensive changes due to high dynamics and erosion.<br /><strong><em>Longitudinal Profile Changes:</em></strong> Significant longitudinal profile changes were more pronounced in low-gradient sections with soft sediments, while steep-gradient segments exhibited less variation.<br /><strong><em>Channel Dynamics:</em></strong> The river's shift between old and new alluvial beds accounted for high channel migration, with some areas experiencing over 3 kilometers of length increase and extensive meandering.<br /><strong><em>Human Impact:</em></strong> Dam construction and land use changes had substantially influenced water discharge and sediment dynamics, leading to alterations in river morphology and flow patterns.<br /><br />These findings underscored the importance of understanding both natural processes and human impacts on river systems to develop effective management strategies for water resources and ecosystem sustainability.<br />  https://gep.ui.ac.ir/article_29742_4e540d1f5d37a966be071d38bb3b50e2.pdf

University of Isfahan Geography and Environmental Planning 2008-5362 36 2 2025 08 23 The Role of Gender in Climate Perception and Environmental Agency: A Sociological Analysis of Sustainable Tourism in the Desert Regions of Eastern Isfahan The Role of Gender in Climate Perception and Environmental Agency: A Sociological Analysis of Sustainable Tourism in the Desert Regions of Eastern Isfahan 169 196 29815 10.22108/gep.2025.145998.1736 FA Hassanreza Yosofvand Assistant professor, Department of Sociology, Faculty of Law and Social Sciences, Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran Journal Article 2025 07 16 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />This study employed a mixed-methods approach to examine the role of gender in climate risk perception and social engagement related to sustainable tourism in the desert regions of eastern Isfahan Province, specifically Varzaneh, Khur and Biabanak, and Naein. Data were collected through questionnaires administered to 412 participants (208 women and 204 men) and semi-structured interviews with 18 individuals during the first half of 2024. The findings revealed that the women, owing to their roles in social reproduction, exhibited a heightened awareness of climate risks—such as drought, declining water resources, and ecosystem degradation—compared to men. They also demonstrated greater involvement in sustainable tourism initiatives, particularly in areas, such as recycling, environmental education, and desert ecosystem protection. In contrast, the men tended to prioritize economic issues, including reduced agricultural income and tourism infrastructure management. Cultural barriers, such as domestic responsibilities and gender stereotypes, alongside limited financial resources, constrained the women's participation and exacerbated gender inequalities, while the men remained more active in economic and managerial domains. These gendered differences resonated with ecofeminist and climate justice frameworks, underscoring the impact of gender roles on socio-environmental dynamics. Based on these findings, the study recommends gender-responsive policies to empower women through local cooperatives and targeted educational programs, thereby enhancing their contributions to ecosystem conservation and strengthening sustainable tourism development. Future research can focus on localized models of women’s empowerment and the potential of digital technologies to mitigate cultural barriers.<br /> <br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em></strong> Gender, Climate Change, Sustainable Tourism, Social Activism, Desert Regions.<br /> <br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />The desert regions of eastern Isfahan, including Varzaneh, Khur, and Naein, are prominent sustainable tourism destinations in Iran and are renowned for their unique natural attractions, such as sand dunes and salt flats (Norouzi & Moradi, 2019). However, these areas face significant challenges due to climate change, including prolonged droughts, water scarcity, and vegetation degradation, all of which threaten fragile ecosystems and the livelihoods of local communities reliant on agriculture and tourism (Eshraghi et al., 2017; Abdollahi et al., 2016). The impacts of climate change are not distributed uniformly across social groups; they are significantly influenced by gender roles (Dankelman, 2002). Women often tasked with social reproduction responsibilities, such as managing water and food resources, face heightened vulnerabilities due to resource scarcity. In contrast, men, who are typically engaged in economic activities like agriculture or tourism infrastructure management, encounter different challenges (Di Chiro, 2008; Dadvar-Khani & Ghanian, 2016). These gendered roles not only shape daily experiences, but also influence perceptions of climate risks and participation in sustainable tourism initiatives. Research indicates that women tend to express greater concern for environmental risks and engage more actively in low-carbon activities, such as recycling and environmental education, owing to their social responsibilities (Zelezny et al., 2000, cited in Terry, 2009). Conversely, men often prioritize economic considerations and participate less in informal environmental initiatives (Calderón-Fajardo & Rodríguez-Rodríguez, 2024). Sustainable tourism in these desert regions presents opportunities to address economic and social inequalities; however, gender stereotypes and structural barriers—such as limited access to resources and decision-making power—hinder women’s participation (Mohammadzadeh et al., 2024). This study aimed to explore how gender roles shaped climate risk perceptions and social activism in sustainable tourism, thereby addressing the research gap in localized, gender-focused studies within Iran’s desert regions (Banerjee & Bell, 2007).<br /> <br /><strong>Materials & Methods</strong><br />This research employed a mixed-methods approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to investigate gender differences in climate risk perception and social activism within sustainable tourism. The study population consisted of local residents and tourism stakeholders—including tour guides, ecolodge managers, and farmers—in the desert regions of Varzaneh, Khur, and Naein selected for their vulnerability to climate change impacts like drought. For the quantitative component, a random cluster sampling method was utilized to ensure diversity in gender, age, and occupation, resulting in a sample of 412 participants (208 women and 204 men) with a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error. The qualitative component employed purposive sampling, which resulted in selecting 18 participants with direct experience in sustainable tourism, and in-depth semi-structured interviews for evaluating the impacts of climate change, continuing until theoretical saturation was achieved.<br /><strong><em>Data Collection Tools</em></strong><br /><strong><em>Quantitative:</em></strong> A standardized questionnaire was designed, incorporating both closed-ended (Likert scale) and open-ended questions. It covered three main areas: (1) climate risk perception (e.g., impacts of drought on tourism and livelihoods), (2) participation in social activism related to sustainable tourism (e.g., ecosystem protection and recycling), and (3) influence of gender roles on participation (Terry, 2009; Di Chiro, 2008).<br /><strong>Qualitative:</strong> Semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore gendered experiences of climate change and barriers to participation, which were guided by theoretical frameworks, such as social reproduction.<br /><strong><em>Data Analysis</em></strong><br />Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS software, employing descriptive statistics, independent t-tests, ANOVA, and multiple regression analysis to identify gender differences and predictors of participation. Qualitative data were analyzed manually using thematic content analysis, which involved open, axial, and selective coding to identify key themes related to the impact of gender roles on climate risk perception and sustainable tourism activities. The content validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by experts in environmental sociology, tourism, and geography with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.82 indicating strong reliability. Interviews were conducted by trained interviewers (5 students of both genders) to address cultural sensitivities and ensure equitable participation.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br /><strong><em>Demographic Profile</em></strong><br />The sample comprised an almost equal distribution of women (50.5%) and men (49.5%) with the 26–40 age group being the most represented at 37.9%. Educationally, 43.2% of participants held university degrees, which contributed to their level of environmental awareness. In terms of occupation, agriculture and livestock represented 27.2% of the sample, while clerical work accounted for 23.3%. The women were primarily identified as homemakers (28.8%), whereas the men were predominantly involved in agriculture (36.3%), reflecting traditional gender roles.<br /><strong><em>Quantitative Findings</em></strong><br /><strong><em>Climate Risk Perception:</em></strong> The women demonstrated a higher perception of climate risks (mean = 4.27, SD = 0.71) compared to the men (mean = 3.59, SD = 0.83), resulting in a sample mean of 3.93 (SD = 0.79). The women, particularly those with university education (mean = 4.41) and rural residents (mean = 4.35), expressed greater concern about water scarcity (72.1% of women vs. 58.8% of men). The men engaged in agriculture showed a higher risk perception (mean = 3.72) compared to their peers in other occupations (mean = 3.46), likely due to economic reliance on natural resources. Age also influenced perception with women aged 25–40 reporting a mean of 4.38 and men aged 40–55 showing a mean of 3.68.<br /><strong><em>Social Activism:</em></strong> Women participated more actively in sustainable tourism activities (mean = 3.92, SD = 0.76) than men (mean = 3.29, SD = 0.81), particularly in recycling (mean = 4.23 vs. 3.04), environmental education (mean = 4.08 vs. 3.12), and ecosystem protection (mean = 3.91 vs. 3.17). The women aged 25–40 years and the men with university education exhibited the highest levels of participation.<br /><strong><em>Qualitative Findings</em></strong><br /><strong><em>Gendered Roles:</em></strong> A significant majority of the women (88.9%) attributed their heightened climate risk perception to domestic responsibilities, such as water management, while the men (88.9%) emphasized economic impacts, particularly agricultural losses.<br /><strong><em>Environmental Attitudes:</em></strong> The women (77.8%) highlighted the importance of ecosystem preservation for future generations in contrast to 44.4% of the men, who prioritized practical issues like funding.<br /><strong><em>Barriers:</em></strong> The women reported facing cultural barriers (77.8%) and time constraints due to domestic duties, whereas the men (55.6%) cited financial and educational limitations.<br /><strong><em>Statistical Analysis</em></strong><br /><strong><em>T-test:</em></strong> Significant gender differences were found in both climate risk perception (t = 4.82, p = 0.001) and social activism (t = 4.15, p = 0.002).<br /><strong><em>ANOVA:</em></strong> Age (F = 3.67, p = 0.012) and education (F = 4.12, p = 0.008) were the significant factors influencing perception, while occupation did not show a significant effect (F = 2.14, p = 0.091).<br /><strong><em>Regression Analysis:</em></strong> Gender (β = 0.41, p < 0.001) and climate risk perception (β = 0.38, p < 0.001) were identified as the strongest predictors of social activism, explaining 42% of the variance (R² = 0.42). Notably, the women’s perception had a stronger effect (β = 0.45) compared to the men’s (β = 0.32).<br /><strong><em>Correlation:</em></strong> A positive correlation was observed between climate risk perception and social activism (r = 0.56, p < 0.001), which was stronger among the women (r = 0.62) compared to the men (r = 0.47).<br /> <br /><strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusion</strong><br />This study confirmed significant gender differences in climate risk perception and social activism within sustainable tourism. The women’s heightened awareness of climate risks aligned with their roles in social reproduction, which was consistent with ecofeminism and social reproduction theories (Mohanty et al., 2018; Di Chiro, 2008). Their active participation in recycling and environmental education reflected a stronger commitment to environmental stewardship (Skanavis & Sakellari, 2008). In contrast, the men tended to focus more on economic concerns and participate less in informal environmental initiatives, which aligns with the findings by Dadvar-Khani & Ghanian (2016). Cultural and structural barriers, such as limited access to resources and entrenched gender roles, restricted the women’s participation, corroborating the insights of Calderón-Fajardo & Rodríguez-Rodríguez (2024). While the tourism potential in the desert regions was substantial, challenges, such as resource exploitation and infrastructure deficits, remained significant (Norouzi & Moradi, 2019). To promote equitable sustainable development, gender-sensitive policies are essential. These should include women-focused environmental education and cooperative models that empower women (Gok, 2023). Future research should investigate local empowerment strategies and the role of digital platforms in enhancing women’s participation, ensuring that tourism policies are inclusive and sustainable. Without addressing gender disparities, tourism policies risk becoming “inadequate, inequitable, and unsustainable”.<br />  <strong>Abstract</strong><br />This study employed a mixed-methods approach to examine the role of gender in climate risk perception and social engagement related to sustainable tourism in the desert regions of eastern Isfahan Province, specifically Varzaneh, Khur and Biabanak, and Naein. Data were collected through questionnaires administered to 412 participants (208 women and 204 men) and semi-structured interviews with 18 individuals during the first half of 2024. The findings revealed that the women, owing to their roles in social reproduction, exhibited a heightened awareness of climate risks—such as drought, declining water resources, and ecosystem degradation—compared to men. They also demonstrated greater involvement in sustainable tourism initiatives, particularly in areas, such as recycling, environmental education, and desert ecosystem protection. In contrast, the men tended to prioritize economic issues, including reduced agricultural income and tourism infrastructure management. Cultural barriers, such as domestic responsibilities and gender stereotypes, alongside limited financial resources, constrained the women's participation and exacerbated gender inequalities, while the men remained more active in economic and managerial domains. These gendered differences resonated with ecofeminist and climate justice frameworks, underscoring the impact of gender roles on socio-environmental dynamics. Based on these findings, the study recommends gender-responsive policies to empower women through local cooperatives and targeted educational programs, thereby enhancing their contributions to ecosystem conservation and strengthening sustainable tourism development. Future research can focus on localized models of women’s empowerment and the potential of digital technologies to mitigate cultural barriers.<br /> <br /><strong>Keywords<em>:</em></strong> Gender, Climate Change, Sustainable Tourism, Social Activism, Desert Regions.<br /> <br /><strong>Introduction</strong><br />The desert regions of eastern Isfahan, including Varzaneh, Khur, and Naein, are prominent sustainable tourism destinations in Iran and are renowned for their unique natural attractions, such as sand dunes and salt flats (Norouzi & Moradi, 2019). However, these areas face significant challenges due to climate change, including prolonged droughts, water scarcity, and vegetation degradation, all of which threaten fragile ecosystems and the livelihoods of local communities reliant on agriculture and tourism (Eshraghi et al., 2017; Abdollahi et al., 2016). The impacts of climate change are not distributed uniformly across social groups; they are significantly influenced by gender roles (Dankelman, 2002). Women often tasked with social reproduction responsibilities, such as managing water and food resources, face heightened vulnerabilities due to resource scarcity. In contrast, men, who are typically engaged in economic activities like agriculture or tourism infrastructure management, encounter different challenges (Di Chiro, 2008; Dadvar-Khani & Ghanian, 2016). These gendered roles not only shape daily experiences, but also influence perceptions of climate risks and participation in sustainable tourism initiatives. Research indicates that women tend to express greater concern for environmental risks and engage more actively in low-carbon activities, such as recycling and environmental education, owing to their social responsibilities (Zelezny et al., 2000, cited in Terry, 2009). Conversely, men often prioritize economic considerations and participate less in informal environmental initiatives (Calderón-Fajardo & Rodríguez-Rodríguez, 2024). Sustainable tourism in these desert regions presents opportunities to address economic and social inequalities; however, gender stereotypes and structural barriers—such as limited access to resources and decision-making power—hinder women’s participation (Mohammadzadeh et al., 2024). This study aimed to explore how gender roles shaped climate risk perceptions and social activism in sustainable tourism, thereby addressing the research gap in localized, gender-focused studies within Iran’s desert regions (Banerjee & Bell, 2007).<br /> <br /><strong>Materials & Methods</strong><br />This research employed a mixed-methods approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to investigate gender differences in climate risk perception and social activism within sustainable tourism. The study population consisted of local residents and tourism stakeholders—including tour guides, ecolodge managers, and farmers—in the desert regions of Varzaneh, Khur, and Naein selected for their vulnerability to climate change impacts like drought. For the quantitative component, a random cluster sampling method was utilized to ensure diversity in gender, age, and occupation, resulting in a sample of 412 participants (208 women and 204 men) with a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error. The qualitative component employed purposive sampling, which resulted in selecting 18 participants with direct experience in sustainable tourism, and in-depth semi-structured interviews for evaluating the impacts of climate change, continuing until theoretical saturation was achieved.<br /><strong><em>Data Collection Tools</em></strong><br /><strong><em>Quantitative:</em></strong> A standardized questionnaire was designed, incorporating both closed-ended (Likert scale) and open-ended questions. It covered three main areas: (1) climate risk perception (e.g., impacts of drought on tourism and livelihoods), (2) participation in social activism related to sustainable tourism (e.g., ecosystem protection and recycling), and (3) influence of gender roles on participation (Terry, 2009; Di Chiro, 2008).<br /><strong>Qualitative:</strong> Semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore gendered experiences of climate change and barriers to participation, which were guided by theoretical frameworks, such as social reproduction.<br /><strong><em>Data Analysis</em></strong><br />Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS software, employing descriptive statistics, independent t-tests, ANOVA, and multiple regression analysis to identify gender differences and predictors of participation. Qualitative data were analyzed manually using thematic content analysis, which involved open, axial, and selective coding to identify key themes related to the impact of gender roles on climate risk perception and sustainable tourism activities. The content validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by experts in environmental sociology, tourism, and geography with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.82 indicating strong reliability. Interviews were conducted by trained interviewers (5 students of both genders) to address cultural sensitivities and ensure equitable participation.<br /> <br /><strong>Research Findings</strong><br /><strong><em>Demographic Profile</em></strong><br />The sample comprised an almost equal distribution of women (50.5%) and men (49.5%) with the 26–40 age group being the most represented at 37.9%. Educationally, 43.2% of participants held university degrees, which contributed to their level of environmental awareness. In terms of occupation, agriculture and livestock represented 27.2% of the sample, while clerical work accounted for 23.3%. The women were primarily identified as homemakers (28.8%), whereas the men were predominantly involved in agriculture (36.3%), reflecting traditional gender roles.<br /><strong><em>Quantitative Findings</em></strong><br /><strong><em>Climate Risk Perception:</em></strong> The women demonstrated a higher perception of climate risks (mean = 4.27, SD = 0.71) compared to the men (mean = 3.59, SD = 0.83), resulting in a sample mean of 3.93 (SD = 0.79). The women, particularly those with university education (mean = 4.41) and rural residents (mean = 4.35), expressed greater concern about water scarcity (72.1% of women vs. 58.8% of men). The men engaged in agriculture showed a higher risk perception (mean = 3.72) compared to their peers in other occupations (mean = 3.46), likely due to economic reliance on natural resources. Age also influenced perception with women aged 25–40 reporting a mean of 4.38 and men aged 40–55 showing a mean of 3.68.<br /><strong><em>Social Activism:</em></strong> Women participated more actively in sustainable tourism activities (mean = 3.92, SD = 0.76) than men (mean = 3.29, SD = 0.81), particularly in recycling (mean = 4.23 vs. 3.04), environmental education (mean = 4.08 vs. 3.12), and ecosystem protection (mean = 3.91 vs. 3.17). The women aged 25–40 years and the men with university education exhibited the highest levels of participation.<br /><strong><em>Qualitative Findings</em></strong><br /><strong><em>Gendered Roles:</em></strong> A significant majority of the women (88.9%) attributed their heightened climate risk perception to domestic responsibilities, such as water management, while the men (88.9%) emphasized economic impacts, particularly agricultural losses.<br /><strong><em>Environmental Attitudes:</em></strong> The women (77.8%) highlighted the importance of ecosystem preservation for future generations in contrast to 44.4% of the men, who prioritized practical issues like funding.<br /><strong><em>Barriers:</em></strong> The women reported facing cultural barriers (77.8%) and time constraints due to domestic duties, whereas the men (55.6%) cited financial and educational limitations.<br /><strong><em>Statistical Analysis</em></strong><br /><strong><em>T-test:</em></strong> Significant gender differences were found in both climate risk perception (t = 4.82, p = 0.001) and social activism (t = 4.15, p = 0.002).<br /><strong><em>ANOVA:</em></strong> Age (F = 3.67, p = 0.012) and education (F = 4.12, p = 0.008) were the significant factors influencing perception, while occupation did not show a significant effect (F = 2.14, p = 0.091).<br /><strong><em>Regression Analysis:</em></strong> Gender (β = 0.41, p < 0.001) and climate risk perception (β = 0.38, p < 0.001) were identified as the strongest predictors of social activism, explaining 42% of the variance (R² = 0.42). Notably, the women’s perception had a stronger effect (β = 0.45) compared to the men’s (β = 0.32).<br /><strong><em>Correlation:</em></strong> A positive correlation was observed between climate risk perception and social activism (r = 0.56, p < 0.001), which was stronger among the women (r = 0.62) compared to the men (r = 0.47).<br /> <br /><strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusion</strong><br />This study confirmed significant gender differences in climate risk perception and social activism within sustainable tourism. The women’s heightened awareness of climate risks aligned with their roles in social reproduction, which was consistent with ecofeminism and social reproduction theories (Mohanty et al., 2018; Di Chiro, 2008). Their active participation in recycling and environmental education reflected a stronger commitment to environmental stewardship (Skanavis & Sakellari, 2008). In contrast, the men tended to focus more on economic concerns and participate less in informal environmental initiatives, which aligns with the findings by Dadvar-Khani & Ghanian (2016). Cultural and structural barriers, such as limited access to resources and entrenched gender roles, restricted the women’s participation, corroborating the insights of Calderón-Fajardo & Rodríguez-Rodríguez (2024). While the tourism potential in the desert regions was substantial, challenges, such as resource exploitation and infrastructure deficits, remained significant (Norouzi & Moradi, 2019). To promote equitable sustainable development, gender-sensitive policies are essential. These should include women-focused environmental education and cooperative models that empower women (Gok, 2023). Future research should investigate local empowerment strategies and the role of digital platforms in enhancing women’s participation, ensuring that tourism policies are inclusive and sustainable. Without addressing gender disparities, tourism policies risk becoming “inadequate, inequitable, and unsustainable”.<br />  https://gep.ui.ac.ir/article_29815_6a5a34ed43f69694ba6c22ea36a21ac1.pdf